Bibliography: A Selected Bibliography of the Social Norms Approach
Here are six key publications in the field of social norms gathered from the selected bibliography posted below. This chronological selection of publications should provide the reader with a solid understanding of the theoretical framework of the social norms approach and its practical application to the field of health promotion.
H. Wesley Perkins and Alan Berkowitz. (1986). "Perceiving the community norms of alcohol use among students: Some research implications for campus alcohol education programming." International Journal of the Addictions, 21, 961-976.
A seminal article in the field of social norms. These researchers found that most students on their campus overestimated their fellow students' support of permissive drinking practices and that this overestimation correlated with drinking behavior. They suggested that correcting this misperceived social norm might reduce heavy drinking and related harm.
Michael P. Haines. (1996). A Social Norms Approach to Preventing Binge Drinking at Colleges and Universities. Newton, MA: The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention, Education Development Center, Inc. *
A complete description of the first social norms marketing campaign conducted
at Northern Illinois University (NIU). Annual self-report health assessment surveys and other data gathered at NIU over a multi-year period have shown significant subsequent increases in safe drinking and abstaining, as well as decreases in alcohol-related injuries.
Koreen Johannessen, et. al. (1999). A Practical Guide to Alcohol Abuse Prevention: A Campus Case Study in Implementing Social Norms and Environmental Management Approaches. Tucson, AZ: Campus Health Service, The University of Arizona.*
A detailed examination of the first four years of the University of Arizona's social norm campaign, which achieved a 29% reduction in heavy drinking.
H. Wesley Perkins and David Craig (2002). A Multifaceted Social Norms Approach to Reduce High-Risk Drinking. Newton, MA: The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention, Education Development Center, Inc.*
A comprehensive presentation of the Hobart and William Smith Colleges' Social Norms Project, which achieved a 30% reduction in high-risk drinking over 5 years. Contents include a complete description of program components, including data collection, print media campaigns, electronic media campaigns, curriculum development, and campus presentations.
H. Wesley Perkins, (2002). "Social Norms and the Prevention of Alcohol Misuse in College Contexts." Journal of Studies on Alcohol/Supplement No. 14, 2002.
An excellent review of conceptual and empirical studies on the role of social norms in college student alcohol use and in prevention strategies to counter misuse. The normative influences of various constituencies serving as reference groups for students are examined as possible factors influencing students' drinking behavior. *
H. Wesley Perkins, Editor (Forthcoming, January 2003). The Social Norms Approach to Preventing School and College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook for Educators, Counselors, and Clinicians. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
An essential resource book of evidence supporting the social norms strategy and a user-friendly exposition of how model interventions have been conducted. Contents include numerous case studies of campus experiments to reduce alcohol abuse, expanding social norms to other campus applications (such as tobacco use), and using the social norms approach with adolescents and young adults in community settings.
*Indicates that a complete version can be accessed in the complete bibliography posted below.
A Selected Bibliography of the Social Norms Approach:Complete Index (Click on a letter to go directly to that section of the bibliography.) A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | J | K | L | M | P | S | W |
Note: When available, annotations have been provided in italics below the relevant entry. Links have been provided for those articles that are currently available online.
Agostinelli, G., Brown, J. M., & Miller, W. R. (1995). "Effects of normative feedback on consumption among heavy drinking college students." Journal of Drug Education, 25(1),31-40.
Andreason, A.. Marketing Social Change: Changing Behaviors to Promote Health, Social Development and the Environment. Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1995.
Baer, J. S., Stacy, A., & Larimer, M. (1991) "Biases in the perception of drinking norms among college students." Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 52, 580-586.
Baer, J. S., & Carney, M. M. (1993). "Biases in the perceptions of the consequences of alcohol use among college students." Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 54, 54-60.
Barnett, L. A., Far, J. M., Maus, A. L., & Miller, J. A. (1996). "Changing perceptions of peer norms as a drinking reduction program for college students." Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, Winter 96, 39-61.
Berkowitz, A. D. (1997). "From reactive to proactive prevention: Promoting an ecology of health on campus." in A Handbook on Substance Abuse for College and University Personnel (Chapter 6), P. C. Rivers and E. Shore (Eds.). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Berkowitz, A. D. (1998). "The proactive prevention model: Helping students translate healthy beliefs into healthy actions." About Campus, September/October 1998, 26-27.
Berkowitz, A. D. & Perkins, H. W. (1987). "Current issues in effective alcohol education programming. Alcohol Policies and Practices on College and University Campuses," 69-85, Joan Sherwood (Ed). Columbus, OH: National Association of Student Personnel Administrators Monograph Series.
Berkowitz, A. D. "The Social Norms Approach: Theory, Research and Annotated Bibliography."
Provides the most up-to-date overview of research in support of social norms theory, reviews successful social norms interventions at all three levels of prevention (universal, selective and indicated), and makes recommendations for future development of the field. This annotated bibliography of important publications and articles on the social norms approach is an excellent resource and is periodically updated. The last revision was posted in January 2003.
This link for the article provided above is to this PDF document as posted on Dr. Berkowitz's web page: www.alanberkowitz.com
Berkowitz, A. D. "Fostering Men's Responsibility for Preventing Sexual Assault." Forthcoming in: Paul A. Schewe (Ed), Preventing Intimate Partner Violence: Developmentally Appropriate Interventions Across the Lifespan. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
This chapter provides a rationale for all male sexual assault prevention program along with a summary of literature reviews supporting this conclusion, outlines essential program elements and formats for working with men, and suggests a developmental model for working with men which integrates various approaches. The chapter concludes with recommendations for future research and implications for program design and development.
This article is available at www.alanberkowitz.com
Berkowitz, A. D. "Critical Elements of Sexual Assault Prevention and Risk Reduction Programs for Men and Women." To be published as Chapter 3 in C. Kilmartin: Sexual Assault in Context: Teaching Men About Gender. Holmes Beach: Learning Publications.
Discusses characteristics of effective programs, provides a rationale for terminology (risk reduction/deterrence vs. prevention), and reviews critical elements of sexual assault prevention and risk reduction programs for men and/or women.
This article is available at www.alanberkowitz.com
Berkowitz, A. D. "Application of Social Norms Theory to Other Health and Social Justice Issues," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
The phenomenon of misperceived norms goes well beyond alcohol and other drug use and can be observed in areas of prevention work including hate speech, sexual aggression among men, and eating disorders among women. This book chapter extends the horizon for using a social norms approach to these areas and provides a review of the limited work of relevance. It concludes with speculation about the utility as well as limitations of a social norms approach for these other areas.
Bingham, Lori (1996) "Young Adults and Health Risk Behaviors."
Results of a study exploring the false-consensus and false-uniqueness effects as related to the prevalence of health risk behaviors. Results indicate that young adults tend to overestimate the percentage of their peers actually involved in health risk behaviors. The presence of false-consensus and false-uniqueness effects was also confirmed.
Carpenter, John A. (1998). "Back to School and Binge Drinking on College Campuses." Recovery, October 1998, Vol. 1, Issue 3.
An explanation of the recently announced editorial policy of the Journal of Studies on Alcohol restricting the use of the term "binge" only to describe a period of extended intoxication.
Clapp, J. D. & McDonnel, A. L. (2000). "The relationship of perceptions of alcohol promotion and peer drinking norms to alcohol problems reported by college students." Journal of College Student Development, 41(1), 20-26.
Craig, D., and Perkins, H. W. (2002) A Multifaceted Social Norms Approach to Reduce High-Risk Drinking. Newton, MA: The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention, Education Development Center, Inc.
Provides a comprehensive presentation of the Hobart and William Smith Colleges' Social Norms Project, which achieved a 30% reduction in high-risk drinking over 5 years. Contents include a complete description of program components, including data collection, print media campaigns, electronic media campaigns, curriculum development, and campus presentations.
Craig, David and H. W. Perkins. "The HWS Experiment: A Synergistic Social Norms Approach Using Print, Electronic Media and Curriculum Infusion to Reduce Collegiate Problem Drinking," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter describes the development and results of an experimental social norms intervention implementing multiple interlinked strategies to achieve a synergistic effect in reducing misperceived drinking norms. Electronic media and curricular innovations were designed to enhance and extend print media communicating actual student norms and producing dramatic reductions in high risk drinking and negative consequences. Results from multiple evaluations demonstrate both immediate and long term positive effects.
Craig, David and H. W. Perkins. "Substance Use Norms and the Developmental Pattern of Misperceptions in Secondary Education," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter reveals the pervasive pattern of misperceptions regarding peer tobacco, alcohol and marijuana norms found among middle and high school students across the nation. The data were collected in a web-based survey conducted in twenty-two schools in five states spread throughout the U.S. The chapter reveals the dramatic potential for introducing the social norms model in secondary education based on these findings and it also demonstrates the growth of misperceived norms as students move through grade levels.
Cressler, Sally O., Jane Metrik, and G. Alan Marlatt. (2002) "Test-Retest Reliability of Alcohol Measures: Is there a Difference Between Internet-Based Assessment and Traditional Methods?" Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, Vol 16, No. 1, 56-63, 2002.
Abstract: This study compared web-based assessment techniques with traditional paper-based methods of commonly used measures of alcohol use. Test-retest reliabilities were obtained, and tests of validity were conducted...Significantly high test-retest reliability coefficients support the use of these measures for research and clinical applications. Furthermore, no significant differences were found between assessment techniques, suggesting that web-based methods are a suitable alternative to more traditional methods. This cost-efficient alternative has the advantage of minimizing data collection and entry errors while increasing survey accessibility.
DeJong, W. & Linkenbach, J. (1999). Telling It Like It Is: Using Social Norms Marketing Campaigns to Reduce Student Drinking. American Association for Higher Education Bulletin, 52(4) 13-16.
DeJong, W. "A Social Norms Approach to Building Campus Support for Policy Change," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Dimeff, L., Baerk, J., Kvilahan, D., & Marlatt, A. G. (1999). Brief alcohol screening and intervention for college students: A harm reduction approach (BASICS). NY: Guilford Press.
Engs, R. C., & Hanson, D. J. (1988). "University students' drinking patterns and problems: Examining the effects of raising the purchase age." Public Health Reports, 103, 667-673.
Engs, R. C., Diebold, B. A., & Hanson, D. J. (1994). "The drinking patterns and problems of a national sample of college students." Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 41, 13-33.
Fabiano, P. M., Perkins, H.W.,Berkowitz, A., Linkenbach, J.,
and Stark, C. "Engaging Men as Social Justice Allies in Ending
Violence Against Women: Evidence for a Social Norms Approach," Journal
of American College Health, Vol. 52 No. 3, pp. 105-112.
Data from this study suggest that men underestimate the importance that
most men and women place on consent and the willingness of most men to
intervene against sexual violence. In addition, men's personal adherence
to only consensual activity and their willingness to act as women's
allies are strongly influenced by their perceptions of other men's and
women's norms. These findings support the proposition that accurate
normative data, which counters he misperception of rape-supportive
environments, can be a critical part of campus efforts to prevent sexual
violence against women.
Fabiano, P. M., "Applying the Social Norms Model to Universal and Indicated Alcohol Interventions at Western Washington University," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter describes how a significant reduction in high risk drinking was also achieved in this university context where commuting and non-traditional students were a significant portion of the student body. A print media campaign was conducted, this time adding social norms delivery through a large peer educator program and, for students already manifesting alcohol problems, delivery through an alcohol screening and intervention program.
Fabiano, P. M., McKinney, G. R., Hyun, Y. R., Mertz, H. K., & Rhoads, K. (1999). LifeStyles, 1998: Patterns of alcohol and drug consumption and consequences among WWU students - An extended executive study. Focus: A research summary, Volume 4(3). Bellingham, WA: The Office of Institutional Assessment and Testing, Western Washington University.
Far, J. and J. Miller. "The Small Group Model: Social Norms Intervention with Targeted High Risk Groups," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter reports the strategies and results of multiple efforts to reduce misperceived peer norms and related high-risk drinking through workshop formats and small group interaction in a variety of social group contexts. Targeted high risk groups included fraternity, sorority, and athletic team members.
Foss, R.D., K.S. Holladay, C.L. Bartley, and L.M. Marchetti (2000)."BACs of University Students Returning Home at Night." Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Alcohol, Drugs, and Traffic Safety. Borlänge, Sweden: Swedish National Road Administration. (Note: This is an Adobe Acrobat file.)
This paper reports the methods and results of the initial, 1997 breathalyzer study conducted at the University of North Carolina. Of particular interest are the data for actual student BACs by time of week and the BACs of students by mode of arrival back home.
Freier, Michelle C., Bell, Robert M., & Ellickson, Phyllis. Do Teens Tell The Truth? The Validity of Self-Reported Tobacco Use by Adoloescents. Santa Monica, CA. The RAND Publication Series, 1991.
This study examines the reliability and validity of self-reported adolescent tobacco use. Psychometric properties of self-reported use were assessed using a questionnaire, then matched with physiological data (saliva samples collected and analyzed for cotinine). Data indicate that the magnitude of underreporting was very low: less than 1 percent of the total responses. Data also sugggest that overreporting was not widespread. The researchers conclude that adolescents "report truthfully about tobacco use when proper data collection procedures are followed."
Graham, J.W., Marks, G. & Hansen, W.B. (1991). "Social Influence Processes Affecting Adolescent Substance Use." Journal of Applied Psychology 76(2), 291-8.
Haines, M. and G. Barker. "The NIU Experiment: A Case Study of the Social Norms Approach," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter presents the first applied experiment using the approach in a college student population. The experiment used print media and co-curricular activities publicizing actual norms to change perceptions and, in turn, documented a dramatic and continuing decline in heavy drinking among students.
Haines, M., G. Barker and R. Rice, "Using Social Norms To Reduce Alcohol And Tobacco Use in Two Midwestern High Schools," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter describes the intervention conducted at two Midwestern high schools using social norms media to significantly reduce cigarette smoking and drinking among 10th grade students during a two-year period. This project was unique among social norms interventions in that it used media to change the perceptions of parents and teachers as well as the students themselves.
Haines, M. (1998). "Community-generated protective norms reduce risk and promote health." College Health in Action, 37(4), 1,5.
Haines, M. (1998). "Social Norms: a wellness model for health promotion in higher education." Wellness Management, 14(4), 1,8.
Haines, M., & Spear, A. F. (1996). "Changing the perception of the norm: A strategy to decrease binge drinking among college students." Journal of American College Health, 45, 134-140.
Haines, M. P. (1993). "Using media to change student norms and prevent alcohol abuse: A tested model." Oregon Higher Education Alcohol & Drug Newsletter, 1(2), 1-3.
Haines, M. P. (1996). A Social Norms Approach to Preventing Binge Drinking at Colleges and Universities. Newton, MA: The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention, Education Development Center, Inc.
Haines, M.P. (1997). "Spare the Rod and Get Results: A Wellness Approach to Health Promotion." Wellness Management, Fall 1997, Vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 1&4.
A call for wellness professionals to use positive messages that normalize and reward wellness instead of demonizing and punishing illness with negative messages. Contains a brief description of Haines' "Media PIE:" Positive, Inclusive, and Empowering media.
Hancock, L. and N. Henry. "Perceptions, Norms and Tobacco Use in College Residence Hall Freshmen: Evaluation of a Social Norms Marketing Intervention," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
The social norms approach can be applied to substance abuse prevention other than problem drinking. This book chapter describes an experiment to reduce the onset of smoking among new college students using a social norms marketing strategy at one university and compares the outcome with data from another school acting as a control site. The experiment demonstrated a significant reduction in onset of smoking among students exposed messages about accurate student norms.
Hansen, W. B. (1993). "School-based alcohol prevention programs." Alcohol Health & Research World, 17, 54-60.
Hansen, W. B. & J. W. Graham. (1991). "Preventing alcohol, marijuana, and cigarette use among adolescents: Peer pressure resistance training versus establishing conservative norms." Preventive Medicine, 20, 414-430.
Horn, P. A. & Brigham, T. A. (1996). "A self-management approach to reducing AIDS risk in sexually active heterosexual college students." Behavior and Social Issues, 6(1), 3-21.
Hunter, D. (1998). Taking control: A student initiative. The Peer Educator: Social Norming - Trusting the Truth, 21(1). Denver, CO: Bacchus/Gamma
Jeffrey, L., P. Negro, D. Miller and J. Frisone. "The Rowan University Social Norms Project," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter reports a replication of the social norms intervention approach with print media at an East Coast university. Assessment results demonstrate that as exposure to campaign materials increased each year a corresponding reduction in high risk drinking was the result.
Johannessen, K., "The University of Arizona's Campus Health Social Norms Media Campaign," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter reports on a replication of the Northern Illinois University print media strategy to reduce misperceptions that refined and further developed the production of media images and applied the strategy in a large southwestern university context. Again, a significant reduction in heavy drinking was the result.
Johannessen, K., Collins, C., Mills-Novoa, B., & Glider, P. (1999). A Practical Guide to Alcohol Abuse Prevention: A Campus Case Study in Implementing Social Norms and Environmental Management Approaches. Tucson, AZ: Campus Health Service, The University of Arizona.
Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. G. (1999). National Survey Results on Drug Use from the Monitoring the Future Study. 1975-1998, Vol. 2: College Students and Young Adults. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, NIH Publication No. 99-4661.
Kotler, P., Andreason, A., Strategic Marketing for Nonprofit Organizations. (3rd ed.) Prentice Hall, 1987.
Kotler, P. & Roberto, E.L. Social Marketing: Strategies for Changing Public Behavior. The Free Press, 1989.
Kumpfer, K. (1997). What works in the prevention of drug abuse: Individual, school and family approaches. Youth Substance Abuse Prevention Initiative: Resource Papers, 69-106. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, US Department of Health and Human Services.
Kypri, K. and Langely, J.D. "Perceived Social Norms and their
Relation to University Student Drinking," Journal of Studies on
Alcohol/November 2003, pp. 829-834.
A 2002 study of a randomly selected representative sample of 1,564 New
Zealand university students found strong evidence of norm
misperceptions, and that perceived norms were strongly related to
individual drinking levels.
Linkenbach, J.W. (in press). The Montana Model: Development and Overview of a Seven-Step Process for Implementing Macro-Level Social Norms Campaigns. In H.W. Perkins (Ed.), The Social Norms Approach to Preventing School and College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook for Educators, Counselors, and Clinicians. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Linkenbach, J.W. (1999). Application of social norms marketing to a variety of health issues. Wellness Management, 15(3).
Linkenbach, J. W. (1999). Building a Bridge: Applying the Social Norms Model to Sexual Health. The BACCHUS & GAMMA Sexual Responsibility Manual. (Available from the Bacchus & Gamma Peer Education Network, www.bacchusgamma.org.
Linkenbach, J.W. (1999). Imaginary Peers and the Reign of Error: Binge Drinking Prevention Through Social Norms. The Prevention Connection: A Publication of the Montana Prevention Resource Center and the Addictive and Mental Disorders Division of the Montana Department of Public Health and Human Services (3), 1-5.
Linkenbach, J.W. (1999). Section 10 -- Social Marketing for Prevention. The New Prevention Professionals Training Manual. (Available from the Western Center for the Application of Prevention Technology, http://www.unr.edu/educ/cep/prac/)
Linkenbach, J.W. (2001). Cultural cataracts: Identifying and correcting misperceptions in the media. Working Paper: a publication of the Report on Social Norms No (1).
Linkenbach, J., Perkins, H. W., and DeJong, W. (2001). Estimated Blood Alcohol Levels
Reached by "Binge" and "Non-Binge" Drinkers: A Survey of Young Adults in Montana.
Psychology of Addictions,15, 317-320.
Abstract: The authors examined estimated blood alcohol concentration (BACs) reached by so-called "binge drinkers" and "nonbinge drinkers" using a survey of young adults (age 18-24 years) in Montana. One third of drinkers were classified as "binge drinkers" the last time they consumed alcohol, using a gender-specific definition commonly applied to young adults: for men, having 5 or more drinks in a row, and for women, having 4 or more drinks. BAC levels were estimated on the basis of length of drinking episode, gender, weight, and typical alcohol consumption level. Among "binge drinkers," 63% did not reach .10% BAC or higher, 48% did not reach .08% BAC or higher, and 30% did not reach .06% BAC or higher. Of the "nonbinge drinkers," 7% reached .06% BAC or higher and and 4% reached .08% BAC or higher. These findings underscore the potential problem of using "binge drinking" as a description and shorthand measure of drinking to intoxication.
Linkenbach, J.W. (2002). Marketing Highlight: Drinking And Driving. In P. Kotler, N. Roberto, & N. Lee (Eds.), Social Marketing: Improving the Quality of Life (2nd Edition) (pp. 162-166). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication, Inc.
Linkenbach, J.W. (2002). Social Norms. In P. Kotler, N. Roberto, & N. Lee (Eds.), Social Marketing: Improving the Quality of Life (2nd Edition) (p. 173). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication, Inc.
Linkenbach, J. W. and H. W. Perkins, "Misperceptions of Peer Alcohol Norms in a Statewide Survey of Young Adults," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Research has begun to explore the phenomenon of misperceived peer norms among adolescents and young adults and it pervasiveness in contexts beyond the college setting. This book chapter reports the results of a state-wide survey of 18 to 24 year old residents in Montana that examines actual and perceived norms for frequency and quantity of alcohol consumption and prevalence of drinking and driving. Results again reveal dramatic discrepancies between actual and perceived norms for both men and women.
Linkenbach, J. W. "Statewide Applications of Social Norms Marketing: The Montana Model," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter discusses the strategic steps taken by one social norms program to take this strategy for promoting health to a statewide level of implementation and reviews issues ranging from data gathering to message development to building coalitions and stakeholder support for this approach.
Linkenbach, J. W. and H. W. Perkins, "Most of Us Are Tobacco Free: An Eight-Month Social Norms Campaign Reducing Youth Initiation of Smoking in Montana," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter describes a social norms experiment conducted among 12 to 17 year olds living in seven Montana counties with results compared to youth in the rest of the state. The social norms media intervention was associated with a dramatically lower rate of first-time use of tobacco by the end of the experimental time period when compared to first-time use rates in the rest of the state where other types of prevention strategies were employed.
Linkenbach, J. W. et al. "Parents' Perceptions of Parenting Norms: The Social Norms Approach in Intergenerational Context," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter reports on a state-wide study of parents of teenage children that examines parenting behaviors and parents' perceptions of other parents. Parents typical misperceive the norms of other parents believing them to be less involved and more permissive in parenting as related to curfews, talking with teens about substance use, and other serious concerns than is actually the case. This study demonstrates a circumstance in which the social norms approach can be extended to family life. The chapter also presents examples of media intervention resulting from these findings.
McAlister, A.L. (Autumn, 1991) "Population Behavior Change: A Theory-Based Approach." Journal of Public Health Policy, 345-361.
Manoff, R.K.. Social Marketing: New Imperative for Public Health. Praeger Publishers, 1985.
Marks, G., Graham, J.W., & Hansen, W. B. (1992). "Social projection and social conformity in adolescent alcohol use: A longitudinal analysis." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 96-101.
Miller, D. T. & McFarland, C. (1987). "Pluralistic ignorance: When similarity is interpreted as dissimilarity." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(2), 298-305.
Miller, D. T. & McFarland, C. (1991). "When social comparison goes awry: The case of pluralistic ignorance." in Social Comparison: Contemporary Theory and Research, Chapter 11. Suls, J. & Wills, T. (Eds). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Miller, J. and J. Far. "The Small Group Model: Social Norms Intervention with Targeted High Risk Groups," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter reports the strategies and results of multiple efforts to reduce misperceived peer norms and related high-risk drinking through workshop formats and small group interaction in a variety of social group contexts. Targeted high risk groups included fraternity, sorority, and athletic team members.
Miller, J. A. & Far, J. M. (2000). Small group model - Norms challenging intervention. Project Culture Change. Pullman, WA: Washington State University.
Perkins, H. Wesley, et. al.
http://alcohol.hws.edu/education/education.htm
This is a comprehensive online bibliography of the articles published by H. Wesley Perkins.
Perkins, H. W. & Berkowitz, A. D. (1986a). "Perceiving the community norms of alcohol use among students: Some research implications for campus alcohol education programming." International Journal of the Addictions, 21, 961-976.
Abstract: Data drawn from a comprehensive survey of alcohol use in a college community (N=1,116) show most students holding a moderate personal attitude regarding alcohol use while misperceiving their peer environment as being much more liberal. Drinking behavior is significantly related to gender, type of living unit, personal attitudes toward drinking, and also the degree of consistency/discrepancy between the individual's own attitude and his or her perception of the campus norm regarding drinking. Students who saw the campus norm to be similar to their own attitude were found to drink more heavily, and in more public settings, than students with discrepant attitudes and perceptions. Implications of findings for alcohol abuse prevention programs on college campuses are discussed.
Perkins, H. Wesley. 1995. "Prevention through Correcting Misperceptions of Alcohol and Other Drug Norms: Notes on the State of the Field." Catalyst (A Publication of The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention and the U.S. Department of Education). Vol. 1, No.3, pp. 1-2.
Perkins, H. Wesley. 1995. "Viewing the Glass More Empty than Full." Catalyst (A Publication of The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention and the U.S. Department of Education). Vol. 1, No.3, p2.
Perkins, H. W., & Wechsler, H. (1996). "Variation in perceived college drinking norms and its impact on alcohol abuse: A nationwide study." Journal of Drug Issues, 26, 961-974.
This study examines college student's perception of campus norms about alcohol use and the impact of these perceptions on personal alcohol abuse, based on data (n = 17,592) from a nationwide survey of students at 140 colleges and universities. Findings reveal that student's particular collegiate environment accounted for only a small portion of overall variation in perceptions of campus drinking norms. More permissive perceptions of the norm were significantly associated with greater personal alcohol abuse even after controlling for personal attitudes, thus suggesting that perceiving a permissive environment encourages students to drink more heavily than they would otherwise based on their personal attitudes. The detrimental impact of perceiving more permissive drinking norms was found to be greatest for students whose own attitudes about drinking are already permissive.
Perkins, H. W. (1997). College student misperceptions of alcohol and other drug norms among peers: Exploring causes, consequences and implications for prevention programs. Designing Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention Programs in Higher Education: Bringing Theory Into Practice. Boston, MA: The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention, U.S. Department of Education, 177-206.
Perkins, H. W., Meilman, P. W., Leichliter, J. S., Cashin, M. A., & Presley, C. A. (1999). "Misperceptions of the norms for the frequency of alcohol and other drug use on college campuses." Journal of American College Health, 47, 253-258.
Perkins, H. W., DeJong, W., and Linkenbach, J. (2001). Estimated Blood Alcohol Levels
Reached by "Binge" and "Non-Binge" Drinkers: A Survey of Young Adults in Montana.
Psychology of Addictions,15, 317-320.
Abstract: The authors examined estimated blood alcohol concentration (BACs) reached by so-called "binge drinkers" and "nonbinge drinkers" using a survey of young adults (age 18-24 years) in Montana. One third of drinkers were classified as "binge drinkers" the last time they consumed alcohol, using a gender-specific definition commonly applied to young adults: for men, having 5 or more drinks in a row, and for women, having 4 or more drinks. BAC levels were estimated on the basis of length of drinking episode, gender, weight, and typical alcohol consumption level. Among "binge drinkers," 63% did not reach .10% BAC or higher, 48% did not reach .08% BAC or higher, and 30% did not reach .06% BAC or higher. Of the "nonbinge drinkers," 7% reached .06% BAC or higher and and 4% reached .08% BAC or higher. These findings underscore the potential problem of using "binge drinking" as a description and shorthand measure of drinking to intoxication.
Perkins, H. W. and Craig, D. (2002) A Multifaceted Social Norms Approach to Reduce High-Risk Drinking. Newton, MA: The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention, Education Development Center, Inc.
Provides a comprehensive presentation of the Hobart and William Smith Colleges' Social Norms Project, which achieved a 30% reduction in high-risk drinking over 5 years. Contents include a complete description of program components, including data collection, print media campaigns, electronic media campaigns, curriculum development, and campus presentations.
Perkins, H. W., (2002).
"Social Norms and the Prevention of Alcohol Misuse in College Contexts." Journal of Studies on Alcohol/Supplement No. 14, 164-172.
An excellent review of conceptual and empirical studies on the role of social norms in college student alcohol use and in prevention strategies to counter misuse. The normative influences of various constituencies serving as reference groups for students are examined as possible factors influencing students' drinking behavior.
Perkins, H. W. "Surveying the Damage: A Review of Research on Consequences of Alcohol Misuse in College Populations." (2002) Journal of Studies on Alcohol/Supplement No. 14, 91-100, 2002.
Abstract: This article provides a review and synthesis of professional research literature on the types, extent and patterns of negative consequences produced by students' misuse of alcohol in college populations based on survey research conducted during the last two decades. Considerable evidence is available documenting a wide range of damage by some students' drinking done to themselves as well as to other individuals, although some types of consequences remain speculative.. Damages and costs to institutions are likely to be substantial, but this claim remains largely an inference based on current studies. Drinking by males compared with that of females produces more consequences for self and others that involve public deviance, whereas females' drinking contributes equally with males to consequences that are personal and relatively private. Research on racial/ethnic background, time trends and developmental stages reveals patterns in student data on consequences in drinking, but these data are very limited in the literature. Evidence suggests there is only a modest correlation between students' self-perception of having a drinking problem and many negative consequences of drinking that are reported.
Perkins, H. Wesley, editor. (2003) The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Perkins, H. Wesley. "The Emergence and Evolution of the Social Norms Approach," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter introduces the Social Norms Approach with an historical description of the evolution of prevention strategies to the emergence of this approach and how the discovery of misperceived peer norms led to the proposal of this prevention strategy.
Perkins, H. Wesley and D. Craig. "The HWS Experiment: A Synergistic Social Norms Approach Using Print, Electronic Media and Curriculum Infusion to Reduce Collegiate Problem Drinking," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter describes the development and results of an experimental social norms intervention implementing multiple interlinked strategies to achieve a synergistic effect in reducing misperceived drinking norms. Electronic media and curricular innovations were designed to enhance and extend print media communicating actual student norms and producing dramatic reductions in high risk drinking and negative consequences. Results from multiple evaluations demonstrate both immediate and long term positive effects.
Perkins, H. Wesley and J. W. Linkenbach, "Misperceptions of Peer Alcohol Norms in a Statewide Survey of Young Adults," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Research has begun to explore the phenomenon of misperceived peer norms among adolescents and young adults and it pervasiveness in contexts beyond the college setting. This book chapter reports the results of a state-wide survey of 18 to 24 year old residents in Montana that examines actual and perceived norms for frequency and quantity of alcohol consumption and prevalence of drinking and driving. Results again reveal dramatic discrepancies between actual and perceived norms for both men and women.
Perkins, H. Wesley and D. Craig. "Substance Use Norms and the Developmental Pattern of Misperceptions in Secondary Education," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter reveals the pervasive pattern of misperceptions regarding peer tobacco, alcohol and marijuana norms found among middle and high school students across the nation. The data were collected in a web-based survey conducted in twenty-two schools in five states spread throughout the U.S. The chapter reveals the dramatic potential for introducing the social norms model in secondary education based on these findings and it also demonstrates the growth of misperceived norms as students move through grade levels.
Perkins, H. Wesley and J. W. Linkenbach. "Most of Us Are Tobacco Free: An Eight-Month Social Norms Campaign Reducing Youth Initiation of Smoking in Montana," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter describes a social norms experiment conducted among 12 to 17 year olds living in seven Montana counties with results compared to youth in the rest of the state. The social norms media intervention was associated with a dramatically lower rate of first-time use of tobacco by the end of the experimental time period when compared to first-time use rates in the rest of the state where other types of prevention strategies were employed.
Perkins, H. Wesley. "Conclusions: The Promise and Challenge of Future Work on the Social Norms Model," (2003) in The Social Norms Approach To Preventing School And College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook For Educators, Counselors, And Clinicians, Ed. H. Wesley Perkins. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book chapter summarizes the promise of the social norms approach based on the range of available research and points out what research is needed to address remaining questions. The chapter also addresses common questions and criticism about this method of promoting health.
Pollard, J. W., Freeman, J. E., Ziegler, D. A., Hersman, M. N., & Goss, C. W. (2000). "Predictions of normative drug use by college students: False consensus, false uniqueness, or just plain accuracy?" Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 14(3).
Posner, Eric. (2000) Law and Social Norms. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Prentice, D. A., & Miller, D. T. (1993). "Pluralistic ignorance and alcohol use on campus: Some consequences of misperceiving the social norm." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 243-256.
Presley, C., Leichliter, J. & Meilman, P. (1998). Alcohol and Drugs on American College Campuses: A Report to College Presidents. Carbondale, IL: CORE Institute, Southern Illinois Univeristy.
Presley, C. H., Meilman, P. W., & Cashin, J. R. (1996). Alcohol and Drugs on American College Campuses: Use, Consequences, and Perceptions of the Campus Environment. (Vol. IV: 1992-94). Carbondale, IL: The CORE Institute, Southern Illinois University.
Schroeder, C. M. & Prentice, D. A. (1998) "Exposing pluralistic ignorance to reduce alcohol use among college students." Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28, 2150-2180.
Shadel, William, Niaura, R., Abrams, D. (2002) "Adolescents Reactions to the Imagery in Smoking and Antismoking Advertisements" Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, Vol. 16, No. 2, 173-176.
From the abstract: "This study compared adolescents' unbiased perceptions of the images displayed in smoking and antismoking advertising. [The study's] findings suggest that one reason for the potency of cigarette advertising, compared with antismoking advertising, is the inherent positive appeal of the images displayed. Antismoking advertising may be more effective at limiting adolescent smoking if the images displayed have a more positive valence."
Sher, Kenneth, Bartholow, B., Nanda, S (2001). "Short- and Long-Tern Effects of Fraternity and Sorority Membership on Heavy Drinking: A social Norms Perspective." Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, Vol. 15, No. 1, 42-51.
The authors state: "The most important and unique finding to emerge from this study is that the often-cited relation between Greek membership and heavy drinking in college does not appear to have long-term consequences for Greek members. Our analyses consistently indicated that Greeks drank more heavily than non-Greeks during the college years but that this difference was no longer apparent 3 years after college. In addition, our examination of the potential third-variable explanations showed that peer alcohol use norms at least partially account for the relation between Greek membership and heavy drinking. Taken together, the current findings and those of Baer et al. Strongly indicate that college students, but particularly fraternity members, would benefit from educational programs designed to counter faulty beliefs about normative drinking levels on campus."
Walters, Scott A. "In Praise of Feedback: An effective intervention for college students who are heavy drinkers." Journal of American College Health, 45 (March 2000), 235-8.
Wechsler, H., Davenport, A., Dowdall, G., Moeykens, B., & Castillo, S. (1994). "Health and behavioral consequences of binge drinking in college: A national survey of students at 140 campuses." Journal of the American Medical Association, 272, 1672-1677.
Wenzel, Michael (June 2001). "Misperceptions of Social Norms About Tax Compliance (1): A Prestudy." Working Paper No 7: Centre for Tax System Integrity, Research School of Social Sciences (Australian National University).
The report of a prestudy investigating the application of the social norms approach to the issue of tax compliance. Three conclusions were drawn from this research: "First, social norms seem to matter in the area of taxation and affect taxpayer behavior. Second, taxpayers may misperceive these social norms and underestimate others' beliefs in the obligation to pay one's taxes honestly. Third, an intervention that gives taxpayers feedback about this phenomemon may be effective in correcting perceptions of social norms and increase the degree to which others are perceived to endorse beliefs of tax honesty. In this way, the intervention can increase tax compliance."
Wenzel, Michael (June 2001). "Misperceptions of Social Norms About Tax Compliance (2): A Field Experiment." Working Paper No 8: Centre for Tax System Integrity, Research School of Social Sciences (Australian National University).
Abstract: "Based on an earlier study with a student sample [See Working Paper No 7], the present research evaluated an intervention to increase tax compliance that involved two steps. In step 1, taxpayers were sent a survey about their own personal norms and behavior as well as others' norms and behavior concerning taxpaying. In step 2, they were informed about a systematic self-other discrepancy in their perceptions, suggesting that taxpayers wrongly think that most taxpayers hold norms of honesty to a lesser degree (injunctive norm) and act less honestly (descriptive norm) than they do themselves. Feedback about the survey results should encourage taxpayers to correct their perceptions of social norms and thus increase compliance. Tax deduction claims for four groups of taxpayers (injunctive norm feedback, descriptive norm feedback, survey only, control) were analysed and revealed no treatment effects for claims of work-related expenses, but significant reduction of claims for other deductions in the injunctive norm feedback condition compared to the control conditions."
Wood, M. D., Nnagoshi, C. T., & Dennis, D. A. (1992). "Alcohol norms and expectations as predictors of alcohol use and problems in a college student sample." American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 18, 461-476.
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