National Social Norms Institute

Articles on the Social Norms Approach - Measuring Misperceptions and Behavior

2009

Cross, J.E. & Peisner, W. (2009). RECOGNIZE: A social norms campaign to reduce rumor spreading in a junior high school. Professional School Counseling, 12 (5), 365. go to summary

DeJong, W., Schneider, S.K., Towvim, L.G., Murphy, M.J., Doerr, E.E., Simonsen, N.R., et al. (2009). A multisite randomized trial of social norms marketing campaigns to reduce college student drinking: A replication failure. Substance Abuse, 30 (2), 127-140. go to summary

Keller, A. & Bauerle, J. (2009). Using a logic model to relate the strategic to the tactical in program planning and evaluation: An illustration based on social norms interventions. American Journal of Health Promotion, in press. go to summary

LaBrie, J.W., Cail, J., Hummer, J.F., Lac, A., & Neighbors, C. (2009). What men want: the role of reflective opposite-sex normative preferences in alcohol use among college women. Psychology of Addictive Behavior, 23 (1), 157-162. go to summary

Moreira, M.T., Smith, L.A., & Foxcroft, D. (2009). Social norms interventions to reduce alcohol misuse in university or college students. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2009, 3, CD006748. go to summary

Schmidt, E., Kiss, S.M., & Lokanc-Diluzio, W. (2009). Changing social norms: A mass media campaign for youth ages 12-18. Canadian Journal of Public Health. Revue Canadienne de Sante Publique, 100 (1), 41-45. go to summary

2008

Lewis, M.A., Neighbors, C., Lee, C.M. & Oster-Aaland, L. (2008). Twenty-first birthday celebratory drinking: Evaluation of a personalized normative feedback card intervention. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 22 (2), 176-185. go to summary

Neighbors, C., Geisner, I.M., & Lee, C.M. (2008). Perceived marijuana norms and social expectancies among entering college student marijuana users. Psychology of Addictive Behavior, 22 (3), 433-438. go to summary

Neighbors, C., O’Connor, R.M., Lewis, M.A., Chawla, N., Lee, C. M., & Fossos, N. (2008). The relative impact of injunctive norms on college student drinking: The role of reference group. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 22 (4), 576-581. go to summary

2007

Dams-O’Connor, K., Martin, J.L. & Martens, M.P. (2007). Social norms and alcohol consumption among intercollegiate athletes: The role of athlete and non-athlete reference groups. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 2657-2666. go to summary

Ford, J. (2007). Alcohol use among college students: a comparison of athletes and non-athletes. .Substance Use and Misuse, 42 (9), 1367-1377. go to summary

Lewis, M.A. & Neighbors, C. (2007). Optimizing personalized normative feedback: the use of gender-specific referents. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68 (3), 385-392. go to summary

Lewis, M.A., Neighbors, C., Oster-Aaland, L., Kirkeby, B.S. & Larimer, M.E. (2007). Indicated prevention for incoming freshmen: Personalized normative feedback and high-Risk drinking. Addictive Behaviors, 32 (11), 2495-2508. go to summary

Lewis, M. L., Lee, C. M., Patrick, M. E., & Fossos, N. (2007). Gender-specific normative misperceptions of risky sexual behavior and alcohol-related risky sexual behavior. Sex Roles, 57, 81-90. go to summary

Lewis, T. F. (2007). Perceptions of risk and sex-specific social norms in explaining alcohol consumption among college students: Implications for campus interventions. Journal of College Student Development, 48 (3), 297-310. go to summary

2006

Cameron, K. A. & Campo, S. (2006). Stepping back from social norms campaigns: Comparing normative influences to other predictors of health behaviors. Health Communication, 20 (3), 277-288. go to summary

Linkenbach, J., & Perkins, H.W. (2006). Montana's MOST of Us Don't Drink and Drive campaign: A social norms strategy to reduce impaired driving among 21- to 34-year-olds. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Publication: DOT HS 809 869. go to summary

Neighbors, C., Lewis, M.A., Bergstrom, R.L, & Larimer, M.E. (2006). Being controlled by normative Influences: Self-determination as a moderator of a normative feedback alcohol intervention. Health Psychology, 25 (5), 571-579. go to summary

Neighbors, C., Oster-Aaland, L., Bergstrom, R.L., & Lewis, M.A. (2006). Event- and context-specific normative misperceptions and high-risk drinking: Twenty-first birthday celebrations and football tailgating. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67 (2), 282-289. go to summary

Perkins, H.W. & Craig, D.W. (2006). A successful social norms campaign to reduce alcohol misuse among college student-athletes. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67 (6), 868-879. go to summary

Polonec, L.D., Major, A.M., & Atwood, L.E. (2006). Evaluating the believability and effectiveness of the social norms message “Most students drink 0 to 4 drinks when they party”. Health Communication, 20 (1), 23-34. go to summary

2005

2004

Berkowitz, A. D. (2004). The Social Norms Approach: Theory, Research, and Annotated Bibliography. go to summary

Lewis, M.A., & Neighbors, C. (2004). Gender-specific misperceptions of college student drinking norms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18 (4), 334-339. go to summary

Lynch, J.F., Mowrey, R.J., Nesbitt, G.M., & O'Neill, D.F. (2004). Risky business: Misperceived norms of sexual behavior among college students. NASPA Journal, 42 (1), 21-35. go to summary

2003

Kypros K. & Langely, J.D. (2003). Perceived social norms and their relation to university student drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 64, 829-834. go to summary

Perkins, H. Wesley, Editor (2003). The Social Norms Approach to Preventing School and College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook for Educators, Counselors, and Clinicians. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. go to summary

2001

Cunningham, J.A., Wild, T.C., Bondy, S.J., & Lin, E. (2001). Impact of normative feedback on problem drinkers: A small-area population study. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 62 (2), 228-233. go to summary

2009

Allen, J.D., Mohllajee, A., Shelton, R.C., Othus, M. K.D., Fontenot, H.B., & Hanna, R. (2009). Stage of adoption of the human papillomavirus vaccine among college women. Preventive Medicine, in press, corrected proof. return to list

Objective:
Certain types of human papillomavirus (HPV) can cause cervical and other cancers. Gardasil, a vaccine that protects against HPV types responsible for 70% of cervical cancers, is available to females ages 9–26. This study assessed factors associated with the intention of female college students ages 18–22 to obtain the Gardasil vaccine and provides insights into the cognitive, attitudinal, and normative beliefs that shape HPV vaccine intentions.
Method:
In 2007, female students (n = 1,401) enrolled full time at a private New England University in the U.S. completed an on-line survey that assessed: (1) knowledge and awareness of HPV and the HPV vaccine; (2) perceived susceptibility to HPV, genital warts and cervical cancer; (3) perceived severity of HPV, genital warts and cervical cancer, 4) perceived vaccine benefits/barriers, (6) social (peers receipt of HPV vaccine) and subjective (perceptions that significant others approve of vaccination) norms, and stage of vaccine adoption. Participants provided information about demographic characteristics, and were asked about their current relationship status, sexual activity, Pap smear utilization, history of sexually transmitted infections (STI), and contraceptive use.
Results:
The majority of participants had previously heard of HPV and the vaccine (93% and 87%, respectively), though some misperceptions about the virus were prevalent. About half (53%) of respondents were planning to be vaccinated; 45% planned to obtain the vaccine after 30 days (contemplation), 8 % planned to obtain the vaccine within 30 days (preparation), and 12% had received the vaccine (action). About 15% of respondents were undecided and 7% had decided against vaccination. Another 13% had never even heard of the vaccine (pre-contemplation). These results are largely consistent with studies conducted to date which show that among college-aged women, 65% (Gerend and Magloire, 2008) to 74% (Boehner et al., 2003) say they would accept vaccination.

Individuals who were undecided about vaccination and those not planning to be vaccinated in the near future (contemplators) had low ratings of perceived severity of HPV infection, compared with other groups. Those who had already obtained the vaccine (action) had the lowest ratings of barriers to vaccination. Finally, those who were planning to be vaccinated at some point in the future (contemplators, preparation) and those who had already been vaccinated (action) were more likely to report that their significant others supported vaccination (subjective norms).

The factor most strongly associated with vaccine intentions was social norms; the perception that peers were planning to be vaccinated or already had been vaccinated. It is possible that those who refused the vaccine may be concerned that the vaccine may actually cause HPV infection. Alternatively, given that the other stage groups (with the exception of those undecided) all had higher subjective norms than individuals in this group, it may be that those who decided against vaccination were pressured by significant others not to obtain the vaccine.
Conclusions:
The findings suggest the college students should be a priority audience for HPV-related educational interventions and campaigns. Acceptance of the vaccine was high, although misconceptions about viral transmission, availability of treatment, and the role of Pap tests were common. Perceived norms were strongly associated with intentions. Interventions on college campuses should stress vaccination as a normative behavior, provide information about viral transmission, and stress the role of continued Pap screening. Although awareness of HPV is high, this does not translate into accurate knowledge about how to protect themselves from the virus
(Gerend and Magloire, 2008; Tiro et al., 2007). Successful efforts to promote HPV vaccination might begin by assessing stage of readiness, and focusing intervention efforts on supporting stepwise movement of participants along the stage continuum.
Implications for the Field:
The results support the notion that tailoring educational messages or strategies by stage of adoption may be useful. Given the strong correlation between social and subjective norms and later stages of adoption, it may be useful to develop peer-led interventions to promote subjective norms or to design programs that portray screening as a normative behavior to reach those in earlier stages of change. Interventions are needed to promote uptake among those who are undecided and to address barriers for those who have decided against vaccination. Given the relationship between subjective norms and vaccine intentions, peer-led education on college campuses should be considered.

Cross, J.E. & Peisner, W. (2009). RECOGNIZE: A social norms campaign to reduce rumor spreading in a junior high school. Professional School Counseling, 12 (5), 365. return to list

This article studied changes in rumor spreading and perceptions of peers' rumor spreading among students at one public junior high school following a social norms marketing campaign. Results of the study show that perceptions of peer rumor spreading fell following the campaign, but self-reports of rumor spreading did not decrease. Results suggest that a social norms marketing campaign conducted by a professional school counselor and delivered to students in a junior high can reduce misperceptions of negative social behaviors.

A 14-site randomized trial tested the effectiveness of social norms marketing (SNM) campaigns, which present accurate student survey data in order to correct misperceptions of subjective drinking norms and thereby drive down alcohol use. Cross-sectional student surveys were conducted by mail at baseline and at posttest 3 years later. Hierarchical linear modeling was applied to examine multiple drinking outcomes, taking into account the nonindependence of students grouped in the same college. Controlling for other predictors, having a SNM campaign was not significantly associated with lower perceptions of student drinking levels or lower self-reported alcohol consumption. This study failed to replicate a previous multisite randomized trial of SNM campaigns, which showed that students attending institutions with a SNM campaign had a lower relative risk of alcohol consumption than students attending control group institutions (W. DeJong et al. J Stud Alcohol. 2006;67:868-879). Additional research is needed to explore whether SNM campaigns are less effective in campus communities with relatively high alcohol retail outlet density.

Logic models are a ubiquitous tool for specifying the tactics – including implementation and evaluation -- of interventions in the public health, health and social behaviors arenas. Similarly, social norms interventions are a common strategy, particularly in college settings, to address hazardous drinking and other dangerous or asocial behaviors. This paper illustrates an extension of logic models to include strategic as well as tactical components, using a specific example developed for social norms interventions. Placing the evaluation of projects within the context of this kind of logic model addresses issues related to the lack of a research design to evaluate effectiveness.

Objective:
This study examined opposite-sex reflective drinking norms of heterosexual female students and the extent that these reflective norms influence female alcohol consumption.
Method:
A random sample of 7,000 students stratified across class year and equally portioned from two universities (a private mid-size and a large public university on the west coast) were invited to complete a Web-based survey during the fall semester of 2007. Of these, 3,753 students completed the survey. Only heterosexual students (96.3%, N =3616) were included in the final sample.
Female participants responded to two sets of questions assessing perceptions of opposite sex (male) drinking preferences. The first set assessed more traditional normative alcohol use variables utilizing open-ended question format, while the second set assessed the perceived level of drinking valued by typical college males for various types of relationships found in the college environment. Participants began by answering two open-ended questions to assess their perceptions about the amount males prefer their female friends to drink. They were then asked to answer three questions referring to perceived preferences of college males regarding drinking behavior of a female friend, sexual partner, and dating partner.
Male participants answered the same questions, stating their actual preferences of the amount of alcohol they prefer their female friends, sexual partners, and dating partners to drink.
Norms were assessed by asking heterosexual women to state their perception of males’ expectations of women’s drinking, and their accuracy was assessed by comparing these expectations to heterosexual males’ actual preferences.
Results:
Results showed that females overestimate the amount of alcohol males want their female friends, dating partners, and sexual partners to drink, and that this misperception was associated with a woman’s actual drinking behavior, even after controlling for demographic factors and perceived same-sex norms. Furthermore, analyses of female perceptions showed that a large percentage of women mistakenly believe that males want them to drink to risky levels. This is particularly the case within the friendship and sexual contexts, where additional analyses showed that 26.1% of women stated that men would most likely want to be friends with a woman who drinks 5 or more drinks, and 16.7% stated that men would be the most sexually attracted to the same. Both estimates are nearly double men’s actual preferences for that behavior. Analyses of male preferences showed that college men prefer their female friends and sexual partners to drink more than the women they are dating.
Conclusion:
That females’ perceptions of what men desire women to drink account for their drinking, while controlling for same-sex norms, highlights the role of reflective norms in understanding college women’s drinking. In the context of the well-established normative influence of same-sex peers, this finding offers unique insight into college women’s motivations for drinking. Although the exact mechanism of this social effect is still unclear, the literature suggests that it may relate to both a greater concern with the development and maintenance of social relationships as well as the widespread belief that men find it attractive and sexually appealing when a woman can drink as much as a man does. If it is the case that women’s drinking is related to the development of social relationships, then these misperceptions may be encouraging women to drink to risky levels. These results suggest that reflective normative feedback may offer a powerful new tool for female-targeted interventions.
Implications for the field:
The study is the first to quantify the difference between the amount heterosexual women believe men want them to drink, and the drinking behaviors that heterosexual men actually prefer. That these misperceptions are associated with a women’s drinking, over and above same sex peer norms, suggest that they may be a new important explanatory factor for college women’s alcohol use that needs further exploration and understanding.

Mallett, K.A., Bachrach, R.L., & Turrisi, R. (2009). Examining the unique influence of interpersonal and intrapersonal drinking perceptions on alcohol consumption among college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol & Drugs, 70 (20), 178-185. return to list

Objective: Interventions for college student drinking often incorporate interpersonal factors such as descriptive and/or injunctive norms to correct misperceptions about campus drinking (e.g., BASICS [Brief Alcohol Screening and Intervention for College Students] and social-norms campaigns). Some interventions also focus on intra-personal factors of alcohol consumption, which can be considered as ones own perception of drinking, ones attitude toward drinking, and ones intended outcome related to drinking. The current study sought to extend previous work by examining relationships between both inter- and intrapersonal perceptions of drinking and reported drinking behavior. Method: College students (N = 303) completed questionnaires assessing drinking behaviors, perceptions of other students attitudes toward drinking (i.e., injunctive norms), their perception of the quantity and frequency of student/friend drinking (i.e., descriptive norms), and their attitudes and perceptions toward their own alcohol consumption (i.e., intrapersonal factors). Results: Multiple regressions were used to analyze the unique influence between inter- and intrapersonal drinking perceptions and drinking behavior. Conclusions: Among the interpersonal perceptions of drinking, only closest friend's drinking significantly predicted alcohol consumption, whereas all three intrapersonal factors significantly predicted alcohol consumption. Suggestions for enhancing college student drinking interventions are discussed.

Misuse of alcohol can result in disabilities and death. Alcohol also leads to accidents, fights and unprotected sex. Young people aged 15 to 24 years contribute a high proportion to this burden. University students may not drink as frequently as their non-university peers but they have a tendency to drink excessively when they do. Social norms refer to our perceptions and beliefs about what is 'normal' behaviour. People may believe that their peers drink heavily, which influences their drinking, yet much of peer influence is the result of incorrect perceptions. Normative feedback relies on the presentation of information on these misperceptions, about personal drinking profiles, risk factors, and normative comparisons. Feedback can be given alone or in addition to individual or group counselling. This systematic review was based on 22 controlled trials involving 7275 college or university students randomly assigned to the social norms intervention or a control group. Interventions delivered using the web or computer, or in individual face-to-face sessions, appeared to reduce alcohol misuse. The evidence was less convincing for group face-to-face sessions. Mailed and group feedback were on the whole no different than with the control intervention. Two large studies showed contradictory results for a social marketing campaign. Only a small number of good quality studies were available for many of the outcomes and analyses, and most of the studies were from the USA. The intensity of the intervention differed between trials as did the control intervention, which was no intervention, educational leaflets or an alcohol educational session. Individual face-to-face feedback typically involved social norms feedback as just one aspect of a broader motivational interviewing intervention. Locations where alcohol outlet density is higher may promote higher consumption through more frequent alcohol promotions and easier access to alcohol, so the effectiveness of an intervention designed to reduce drinking could be expected to be lower in these areas.

Abstract:
Objective:
To create a mass media campaign that endeavours to a) denormalize tobacco use among youth aged 12-18, b) empower youth to stay
tobacco product free, and c) increase awareness of the dangers of tobacco use, while using positive messaging.
Participants:
Target age group was youth between the ages of 12 and 18 years.
Setting:
The mass media campaign was developed, implemented, and evaluated within the city of Calgary.
Intervention:
The mass media campaign consisted of posters for schools and other venues frequented by youth (e.g., community centres, libraries,
fitness centres, restaurants, movie theatres), posters for transit (e.g., bus shelters, LRT shelters, back of bus) print advertisements, television/radio public
service announcements, an interactive community website for youth, a media launch event, promotional items, and organizational efforts to crosspromote
the campaign. The creative concept was based on intercept interviews, focus group testing, and other research conducted by the campaign’s
creative team and youth volunteers in order to identify the key elements of this campaign.
Outcomes:
A total of 149 students completed both a baseline and follow-up survey to evaluate the marketing activities of the campaign. A total of 27
youth participated in prototype testing to compare this positive-messaging campaign with negative-toned tobacco reduction campaigns. Six
stakeholders/partners participated in stakeholder interviews to assess their thoughts and learnings regarding the campaign process.
Conclusion:
The evaluation respondents viewed the campaign positively and showed strong recall of the messaging.

2008

Hughes, C., Julian, R., Richman, M., Mason, R., & Long, G. (2008). Harnessing the power of perception: Reducing alcohol-related harm among rural teenagers. Youth Studies Australia, 27 (2), 26-35. return to list

Objective:
This study examined the preliminary findings of the Social Norms Analysis Project (SNAP), a cross-sectoral partnership of organizations that worked together to undertake the first Australian trial of a social norms campaign to reduce risky drinking and alcohol-related harm among high school youth in four rural communities in Tasmania. Tasmania exhibits some concerning trends with respect to alcohol consumption and alcohol-related harm, including the largest percentage increase in alcohol-related hospitalizations between 1993 and1994 and 2000 to 2001. By the age of 14, around 90% of the Australian population has tried alcohol (White and Haymen, 2004). Previous research has indicated that youth in rural areas consume alcohol at higher levels than their metropolitan counterparts, thereby placing themselves at increased risk of “being involved in social disorder as victims or perpetrators, or both” (Williams, 1999).
Method:
The two-year trial included rural municipalities that were selected for having a “sense of community” and a focus on youth and/or problematic alcohol consumption. The municipalities also had an active local council; no more than two public high schools servicing the community; and a history of successful partnerships with the university, law enforcement agencies, and all three tiers of government. Student data was collected from students in years 7-10 at the four trial schools using a self-administered anonymous survey in mid-2006 (baseline) and twice in 2007. A total of 509 surveys from the four intervention schools were completed and analyzed. The analyses focused on the relationship between the students’ own alcohol-related attitudes and behaviors and their perceptions of others’ alcohol-related attitudes and behaviors and the student’s own experience of alcohol-related consumption and harms.
Results:
The baseline survey results demonstrate the existence of considerable misperception among the target groups at all four trial sites across a range of areas. Students underestimated the proportion of those who drank once a month or less and overestimated the proportion drinking once or twice a week or more. Similar misperceptions were observed in relation to drunkenness. As the perceived frequency of others getting drunk increased, so too did the frequency of oneself getting drunk. Infrequent drunkenness among others was significantly underestimated and frequent drunkenness was substantially overestimated. In addition, there was a strong relationship between perceived rates and self-reported rates of drinking, suggesting that students tend to drink at around the same rate as they perceive their friends to drink.
Conclusions:
The baseline SNAP results suggest that the teenagers involved in the trial (like adolescents and young adults in the United States and elsewhere) have inaccurate notions of what constitutes “normal behavior” in relation to alcohol. The authors conclude that teens’ drinking behaviors may not be driven so much by a need for peer approval or to be accepted by a group, but rather by “what is perceived of as normal behavior among one’s close friends” (Beck and Treiman, 1996).
Implications for the Field:
The preliminary findings resonate with social norms research undertaken in the United States and elsewhere in that “students tend to think that their peers are, on average, more permissive in personal drinking attitudes than is the case, and likewise that peers consume more frequently and more heavily, on average, than is really the norm” (Perkins, 2002).

LaBrie, J.W., Hummer, J.F., Neighbors, C. & Pedersen, E.R. (2008). Live interactive group-specific normative feedback reduces misperceptions and drinking in college students: a randomized cluster trial. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 22 (1), 141-148. return to list

Objective:
This study evaluated the efficacy of a live and interactive group-specific normative feedback intervention designed to correct misperceptions of alcohol-related group norms and subsequently reduce drinking behavior.
Method:
Twenty Greek and service organizations containing 1,162 college students were randomly assigned to intervention or assessment-only control conditions. Participants in the intervention condition attended an intervention during their organization’s regular standing meeting. Data were gathered using computerized handheld keypads (“clickers”) into which participants entered personal responses to a series of alcohol-related questions assessing perceptions of normative group behavior as well as actual individual behavior. These data were then immediately presented in graphical form to illustrate discrepancies between perceived and actual behavioral group norms. Participants were encouraged to examine their personal perceptions and behaviors compared with the actual norms. Follow-up data was collected via online survey at one and two month post-intervention for the intervention condition group and post-initial survey for the control condition groups. The study did not include students in the intervention condition who were not exposed to the intervention in the analyses of the follow up data.
Results:
The findings of the study indicated that compared with the control group, the intervention group reduced drinking behavior and misperceptions of group norms at one month and two month follow-ups after using the interactive polling system. Men and women did not differ with respect to post-intervention drinking after controlling for baseline differences.
Conclusions:
The results demonstrate that the interactive polling system approach appears to be most effective among students who start out with large group-specific normative misperceptions and that reductions in misperceptions mediate actual changes in drinking. This approach produces data on demographic and drinking questions that are equivalent to the data generated by the same questions when posed in traditional confidential surveys. The immediate visual presentation of responses increased participants’ interest in and believability of subsequent responses.
Implications for the Field:
The study demonstrates the effectiveness of a novel, technologically advanced, group-based, brief alcohol intervention that can be implemented with entire groups at relatively low cost.

Objective:
This research was designed to evaluate the efficacy of a personalized normative feedback birthday card intervention aimed at reducing normative perceptions, alcohol consumption, and negative consequences associated with 21st birthday celebrations among college students. The research extended previous examinations of extreme drinking associated with 21st birthday celebrations by exploring drinking context and alcohol-related consequences in connection with this event.
Method:
The study employed a randomized trial evaluating the impact of the birthday card on 21st birthday perceived norms, drinking, and related consequences as compared with an assessment-only control condition. The researchers randomly assigned students turning 21 (n = 1,313) during one academic year at a mid-sized, mid-western university to receive (n = 430) or not receive (n = 410) a birthday card and eBAC calculator about one week prior to the date of their 21st birthday. The birthday card presented three key pieces of information 1) perceptions of the number of drinks consumed by the typical student while celebrating his or her 21st birthday, 2) the actual number of drinks consumed by the typical student while celebrating his or her 21st birthday, and 3) the number of drinks the student intended to consume while celebrating his or her own 21st birthday. This information was intended to show the discrepancy between the normative misperception and the deviation from the drinking norm.
Approximately one week following their birthday, students were asked to complete a brief anonymous survey concerning their birthday celebration activities. The survey included questions regarding demographics as well as the number of drinks consumed, hours spent drinking, and negative consequences occurring during their 21st birthday celebration. Students were also asked their perception of the number of drinks consumed by the typical student during a 21st birthday celebration as well as questions regarding whether they received, read, and liked the birthday card and the card’s impact on their birthday celebration.
Only students who reported 1) consuming at least one drink on their birthday (n = 244) and 2) receiving and reading the card (n = 235) and 3) whose eBAC information could be determined (n = 187) were included in the primary outcome analysis. Among these students (64.7% women, 94.2% Caucasian), the final survey response rate was 20.9% for those who received the card and 23.7% for those who did not receive the card.
Results:
The findings indicated that the birthday card intervention was not successful at reducing drinking or consequences; however, the card did reduce normative misperceptions. Contrary to expectations, students who received the birthday card did not report less drinking behavior compared with students who did not receive the card. This finding is consistent with participants’ perceptions of the effect of the card on their birthday drinking behavior. Participants reported that they liked the card but that the card had little impact on their birthday drinking plans. On the other hand, consistent with expectations, students who received the card had lower or more accurate normative perceptions of the number of drinks the typical student consumed while celebrating his or her 21st birthday compared with those who did not receive the card. Students with lower or accurate perceptions spent fewer hours drinking, consumed less alcohol, and reached lower eBACs compared with students with higher perceptions.
Conclusions:
Although the 21st birthday personalized normative feedback card was not effective at reducing 21st birthday drinking or problems, it can change 21st birthday perceived norms. Prevention efforts other than a birthday card are needed for reducing problematic drinking associated with turning 21.
Implications for the Field:
Brief motivational interviewing (MI) interventions have been found to be efficacious in reducing alcohol use and negative consequences in college students. Future interventions may need to be multi-component and explicitly presented and use actual drinking behaviors instead of intentions. Campaigns need to take into account environmental factors that may contribute to 21st birthday drinking behavior such as location, policy changes, or public media campaigns and should use a more socially proximate normative referent (e.g., same-sex peers) instead of distal referents (e.g., typical college student). Personal normative feedback may work better using computerized or in-person formats where responses are more directly tailored and more clearly present discrepancies related to normative misperceptions and drinking behavior.

Objective:
This research examined the relationships among perceived social norms, social outcome expectancies, and marijuana use and related consequences among entering college freshman marijuana users. The authors were interested in evaluating whether marijuana use and marijuana-related consequences vary as a function of descriptive norms, injunctive norms, and social expectancies.
Method:
High school graduates who were enrolled to attend a large public university completed a brief survey during the summer prior to attending college (N = 2,123). The survey was used to screen students for potential eligibility for a longitudinal study examining the efficacy of a Web-based marijuana prevention program for the transition to college. The screening assessed demographics, engagement in risk behaviors, and psychosocial measures. Students who reported using marijuana at least once in the last 90 days prior to screening were asked to join a larger intervention study. Eligible participants (N = 312, 55% female, 76% white) completed a baseline online assessment one month prior to the beginning of college regarding their marijuana use, related consequences, perceived norms, and social expectancies related to marijuana use. In addition, students were asked questions regarding descriptive norms (“How often do you think your friends typically use marijuana?”) and injunctive norms about their perceptions of how their close friends would feel about their level of marijuana use.
Results:
The results suggested that perceptions of friend’s marijuana use were most strongly associated with marijuana use in comparison with perceived injunctive norms or expectancies and that the perception that other students used marijuana more frequently was more strongly associated with use among students who also perceived other students as more approving of marijuana. In addition, the relationships between perceived descriptive and injunctive norms and marijuana use were stronger among students who reported more positive marijuana expectancies. Descriptive norms and expectancies were both positively associated with marijuana-related consequences, but, injunctive norms were negatively associated with consequences. Students reported using marijuana (on average) 11 out of the past 90 days and experiencing two marijuana related problems. Gender differences were found for marijuana use, with men reporting more days used (13.24 days) than women (8.89 days). There were no gender differences on the experience of marijuana related problems.
Conclusion:
The results highlight the importance of distinguishing between descriptive and injunctive norms and between marijuana use and related consequences. Descriptive and injunctive norms were uniquely and positively associated with use, and both types of norms were more strongly associated with use in comparison with expectancies.
Implications for the field:
Additional research that evaluates social influences on marijuana use is needed. Longitudinal examination of the variables would help researchers to better understand the causal association between perceived norms, marijuana use, and consequences.

Objective:
This research evaluated the importance of reference groups in considering the relationships between injunctive norms and alcohol consumption for college student drinkers.
Method:
Participants for the study included 811 first-year college students who completed baseline online assessments in a larger study evaluating the efficacy of a Web-based social norms alcohol education intervention during the transition to college. All participants met screening criteria for heavy drinking in the month prior to the initial survey. Students completed online assessments of their drinking behavior, as well as their perceptions of the approval (injunctive norms) and prevalence (descriptive norms) of drinking by others. Injunctive norms were evaluated with respect to typical students, typical same-sex students, friends, and parents. Descriptive norms were evaluated with respect to typical students and typical same-sex students.
Results:
Results suggested that for injunctive norms, only perceptions of proximal reference groups (friends and parents) are positively associated with drinking behavior. However, when considered in the context of multiple referents and norms, injunctive norms for more distal groups (typical students/same-sex students) were negatively associated with personal drinking, whereas descriptive norms for distal referents remained positively associated with drinking.
Consistent with prior research, men and women perceived that other students drink more than they do. Men drank more heavily than did women and perceived that other men drink more than does the typical student, while women perceived that other women drink less than does the typical student. Men also perceived that the typical student, typical same-sex student, and (to a weaker degree) their friends approved more of risky drinking than they themselves did. Women approved less of risky drinking and perceived that the typical same-sex student and friends approved less of risky drinking but perceived that the typical student approved more of risky drinking. Men and women did not differ in their perception of how much the typical student drinks
Own alcohol use was correlated with descriptive norms, own approval, and the injunctive norms. Specifically, perceptions about the typical student’s and typical same-sex student’s drinking were positively correlated with own use. Also, one’s own approval of risky drinking and perceived approval by the typical same-sex student, friends, and parents were positively correlated with own drinking. Perceived approval by the typical student was unrelated to own alcohol use.
Conclusions:
Greater personal approval of risky drinking and greater perceived approval of drinking by friends and parents were all significantly and positively associated with students’ own heavy drinking when examined alone and in the context of other injunctive and descriptive norms predictors. Subjects were more likely to care about and have a relatively accurate sense of more proximal others’ approval of drinking, such as their friends and parents, than with those who they did not closely interact.
Implications for the Field:
The results suggest that injunctive norms have a more complex association with one’s own drinking behavior than do descriptive norms. Therefore, intervention strategies that incorporate injunctive norms may need to utilize proximal referent groups to have any meaningful impact. This would entail identifying students’ close friends and assessing approval rates of these friends. New technologies are available to make this task for feasible.

2007

Objective:
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between perceived descriptive drinking norms and personal alcohol consumption as a function of seasonal status within a sample of intercollegiate athletes, using four reference groups. The authors also investigated whether the social norms-personal alcohol use relationships were moderated by gender.
Method:
Data was collected on varsity athletes’ participation in fall sports at an NCAA Division 1 large, state university in the Northeastern United States. The authors conducted separate analyses on the off-season and in-season data, resulting in 119 off-season participants and 109 in-season participants. The mean ages of participants were 19.31 and 19.42 years old respectively; 75% were white, 66% were male, and participants were from a wide variety of varsity sports. A total of 63 athletes provided complete data at both time points.
Participants completed a brief demographics questionnaire that included information such as gender, ethnicity, age, and number of close friends who are athletes. In addition, participants completed a version of the Daily Drinking Questionnaire and were asked to estimate their typical alcohol consumption over the past 30 days for each day of the week. To assess the perception of normative alcohol consumption among one’s friends, participants completed a version of the Drinking Norms Rating From. The participants were asked to estimate normative alcohol consumption for four reference group (closest athlete friend, the typical college athlete, closest non-athlete friend, and typical non-athlete).
Results:
Results of both in-season and off-season analyses indicated that athletes estimated that other college students (both athletes and non-athletes) consumed more drinks per week than they did and perceptions of these social norms predicted personal use. In an in-season analysis, significant differences existed between personal consumption and perceived consumption of athlete friends, typical athletes, non-athlete friends, and typical non-athlete norms. In an off-season analysis, significant differences existed only between personal consumption and perceived consumption of the non-athlete friend and typical athlete. Although the typical athlete norm emerged as the strongest predictor of personal alcohol use, the relative strength of the relationships between individual behavior and the athlete and non-athlete norms varied according to seasonal status. Perceived social norms collectively accounted for a significant increase in variance explained for personal drinks per week.
Conclusion:
Contrary to previous research suggesting that more proximal reference groups have a greater impact on personal behaviors, the strongest predictors of personal alcohol use among athletes in this study, both during in- and off-season, were perceived norms of typical athletes. Since the typical athlete/non-athlete norms refer to broadly defined groups, while the closest friend norms refer to individuals, this finding may reflect the greater influence of groups versus individuals among this particular subset of students. A sense of athletic identity among athletes may supersede their identification with particular sub-groups of one’s closest athlete or non-athlete friends in favor of a more universal sense of athletic group membership. In addition, athletes’ in-season personal drinking behavior was more strongly related to the perceived drinking behavior of one’s closest athlete friend than to perceived behavior among typical non-athletes, whereas the reverse pattern was found during the off-season. This finding may reflect disassociation with non-athletes during the competitive season. Contrary to prior research, no main effects were moderated by gender. The results suggest that relationships between perceived norms and personal behavior are similar among male and female athletes.
Implications for the field:
The results may have implications for the content and timing of prevention and intervention programs aimed at reducing high-risk alcohol use among intercollegiate athletes. Intervention programs that recognize varying social influences and set clear expectation regarding alcohol use may be most effective.

Dunnagan, T., Haynes, G., Linkenbach, J., & Summers, H. (2007). Support for social norms programming to reduce alcohol consumption in pregnant women. Addiction Research and Theory, 15 (4), 383-396. return to list

Objective:
The purpose of this study was to see if misperceptions existed between the amount of alcohol consumed by pregnant Montana women (actual norms) and the amount they perceived was consumed by other Montana women their same age (peer norms).
Method:
On the basis of a stratified cluster sampling, 712 women completed the Montana prenatal questionnaire (PNQ) during the first trimester of their pregnancy. Researchers collected the surveys from 40 randomly selected rural and frontier counties around the state over a two-year period. No data was collected from the state's seven reservation sites. The researchers examined demographic and personal characteristics, the actual and perceived amounts of alcohol consumed by other women their same age before and during their pregnancy, magnitude (number of drinks per session) and frequency (number of times per month), and misperceptions (the difference between actual consumption and expected peer consumption patterns).
Results:
The results of the investigation showed a consistent pattern of overestimation of peer alcohol use norms compared to actual norms within a sample of pregnant Montana women. The women surveyed almost always overestimated how much alcohol is consumed by other women their same age before and during pregnancy. Before their pregnancy, women perceived that other women their same age normally drank more than four times as much alcohol as they actually consumed. However, during their pregnancy, women perceived that other women of their same age normally drank over 102 times as much alcohol as they actually consumed. Furthermore, as the actual drinking increased there was typically a concomitant increase in perceived drinking creating a pattern of misperception based on the actual behavior. In addition to these results, the study found that Native Americans overestimated alcohol consumption significantly more before and during pregnancy than their Non-Native counterparts. Also, women that were physically abused during their pregnancy overestimated significantly more before their pregnancy and during their pregnancy than women who were not abused. Finally, women in better health significantly overestimated alcohol consumption before their pregnancy than women classified as fair or poor health. The only comparison that revealed an underestimation in drinking was between married and non-married women.
Conclusions:
The information from the study supports the application of intervention strategies designed to correct misperceptions of drinking norms in pregnant women as a way to reduce actual drinking rates. These findings also provide preliminary information that that can be used to help in the development of targeted communications related to drinking misperceptions. For example, a sub-population of women who have a dramatic misperception about drinking are Native American women. This information would allow interventions to be directed to a particularly vulnerable portion of the entire population using race specific data, i.e., actual norms of Native American women. In reviewing the results, however, it is also important to note that misperceptions existed for all measures of alcohol consumption by all personal and demographic variables.
Implications for the Field:
Social norms theory provides another consideration for preventing substance abuse during a pregnancy by changing perceptions and modifying social and cultural influences. This approach is different than enforcement in that incentives rather than penalties are used to promote healthy behavior of the mother and unborn child. Social norms interventions could be used to moderate alcohol consumption in women of child bearing ages before and during their pregnancies and may also hold promise for addressing problems associated with alcohol consumption during a pregnancy including the health of the unborn child (i.e. fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), fetal alcohol effect (FAE), and low birth weight).

Ford, J. (2007). Alcohol use among college students: a comparison of athletes and non-athletes. .Substance Use and Misuse, 42 (9), 1367-1377. return to list

Objective:
Prior research indicates that college students who participate in athletics are more likely to engage in a wide range of risky behaviors and report binge drinking than are non-athletes. The goal of this study is to examine why this population is at a greater risk for binge drinking. Research shows that college athletes spend the majority of their time with fellow teammates and other athletes and are potentially socially isolated from the general student body. Thus, college students in these "peer-intensive" contexts are more likely to be influenced by group norms, as individuals feel greater pressure to conform to group expectations of behavior. Social norms are examined to determine if they are a predictor of alcohol use among athletes.
Method:
This study used data from the 1999 Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study (CAS), a national study examining substance use and other health risk behaviors of college students in the United States. The CAS contains information on over 14,000 students at 119 four-year colleges and universities in 39 states. The study includes a set of social norms predictor variables in an effort to better understand alcohol use by college athletes. First, the CAS measured the perceived drinking behavior of peers by asking respondents to state the proportion of their friends that are binge drinkers (0 = 0% to 10 = 90-100%). Second, since the attitudes and behaviors of peers have a greater impact for college students who are more highly integrated, students were asked the number of close friends (0 = none to 5 = five or more) and the number of hours per day spent socializing with friends (0 = zero hours to 5 = five or more hours). Third, respondents reported the importance of parties as part of a college lifestyle (1 = not important at all to 4 = very important). Finally, since prior research indicates that both alcohol use by parents and legal drinking age are predictors of alcohol use among college students, respondents were asked measures of ideal legal drinking age (1 = 21 years-old and over to 5 = under 18-years-old) and parents drinking behavior (0 = No, 1 = Yes). It was expected that athletes would be more likely to report binge drinking than were non-athletes. Therefore, researchers examined the relationship between athletic status and binge drinking through a chi-square test and the relationship between binge drinking, athletic status, social norms, and controls through a series of logistic regression models.
Results:
Research findings indicate that athletes were more likely to report binge drinking in the past two weeks (odds ratio = 1.278), in part, because they viewed alcohol use as being more normative. Social norms predictors offered a potential explanation for the higher rates of binge drinking among college athletes. Respondents who believed parties are an important part of a college lifestyle, believed the legal drinking age should be lowered, have parents who drank, have more friends that were binge drinkers, have more close friends, and socialize more with their friends were all more likely to report binge drinking. These findings suggest that respondents with norms that are more accepting of alcohol use and binge drinking are more likely to binge drink themselves. These findings highlight the importance of social norms as a mediating variable in the relationship between athletic status and binge drinking among college students.
Conclusions:
The findings indicate that college students involved in athletics are at a greater risk for binge drinking than non-athletes are because alcohol use is more normative in their peer and reference groups. The normative nature of alcohol use puts pressure on athletes to use alcohol in order to conform to group expectations of behavior. A failure to use alcohol may result in social censure from peers. The finding of higher levels of binge drinking among athletes is consistent with findings from previous research and highlights the importance of closely examining the peer networks of athletes to determine if athletes are more likely to isolate themselves into athlete-only peer groups.
Implications for the Field:
Based on these findings, substance use programs that target college athletes should incorporate elements of the social norms approach. Changing the perception of the normative nature of alcohol use among college athletes should decrease their levels of use. Social norms prevention programs should focus on educating college athletes about the actual prevalence of alcohol use among their close friends and teammates, as close friends have a greater impact on behavior.

Lewis, M.A. & Neighbors, C. (2007). Optimizing personalized normative feedback: the use of gender-specific referents. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68 (3), 385-392. return to list

Objective:
Many brief interventions include personalized normative feedback (PNF) using gender-specific or gender-neutral referents. Several theories suggest that information pertaining to more socially proximal referents should have greater influence on one's behavior compared with more socially distal referents. The current research evaluated whether gender specificity of the normative referent employed in PNF related to intervention efficacy.
Method:
Following baseline assessment, 185 college students (45.2% women) were randomly assigned to one of three intervention conditions: gender-specific feedback, gender-neutral feedback, or assessment-only control. Immediately after completing measures of perceived norms, alcohol consumption, and gender identity, participants in the gender-neutral and gender-specific intervention conditions were provided with computerized information detailing their own drinking behavior, their perceptions of student drinking, and actual student drinking.
Results:
After a 1-month follow-up, the results indicated that normative feedback was effective in changing perceived norms and reducing alcohol consumption for both intervention groups for women and men. The results provide support, however, for changes in perceived gender-specific norms as a mediator of the effects of normative feedback on reduced drinking behavior for women only. Additionally, gender-specific feedback was found to be more effective for women higher in gender identity, relative to the gender-neutral feedback. A post-assessment follow-up telephone survey administered to assess potential demand characteristics corroborated the intervention effects.
Conclusions:
Results extend previous research documenting efficacy of computer delivered PNF. Gender specificity and gender identity appear to be important elements to consider for PNF intervention efficacy for women.

Lewis, M.A., Neighbors, C., Oster-Aaland, L., Kirkeby, B.S. & Larimer, M.E. (2007). Indicated prevention for incoming freshmen: Personalized normative feedback and high-Risk drinking. Addictive Behaviors, 32 (11), 2495-2508. return to list

Objective:
This study evaluated the efficacy of a computerized personalized normative feedback (PNF) intervention on reducing alcohol consumption among high-risk drinking freshmen. The study examined whether students would demonstrate normative misperceptions for both gender-neutral and gender-specific norms (i.e., same-sex and opposite-sex norms) for freshmen and if same-sex gender-specific norms for freshmen would be more strongly related to personal behavior in comparison to gender-neutral or opposite-sex gender-specific norms for freshmen.
Method:
Three hundred and sixteen freshmen students enrolled in a first-year orientation course at a midsized Midwest university completed measures of perceived drinking norms and drinking behavior. The students were screened to identify freshmen drinking norms for the campus as well as potential participants for the longitudinal study. Students reporting at least one heavy-drinking episode in the previous month were recruited to participate in a baseline and three-and five-month follow-up assessment. Recruited students were randomized into one of three intervention conditions: freshmen-specific personalized normative feedback that was gender-specific or gender-neutral or to an assessment-only control group. The resulting sample consisted of 245 students.
Students completed a web-based survey and participants in the two personalized normative feedback conditions received feedback via the computer screen and printout. PNF feedback included information pertaining to personal drinking behavior, personal perceptions of typical student drinking behavior, and information regarding actual norms for typical student drinking behavior. Based on responses from the screening survey, participants in the gender-neutral PNF were provided gender-neutral norms (e.g., the typical freshman consumes 9.23 drinks per week) whereas participants in the gender-specific PNF condition received gender-specific norms (e.g., the typical female freshman consumes 7.95 drinks per week). Students receiving PNF were also provided with the percentile rank of their drinking in comparison to other students. The researchers evaluated whether there were intervention effects on drinking, on perceived norms, and whether intervention effects on drinking were due to intervention effects on perceived norms. Drinks per week and drinking frequency were examined separately.
Results:
The findings demonstrated that students exhibited normative misperceptions for typical freshmen drinking behavior and that the perceptions of typical same-sex freshmen drinking were positively associated with riskier drinking behavior. Women displayed greater misperceptions than men for drinks per week and drinking frequency. At follow-up, students randomly assigned to receive PNF reduced perceptions of typical freshmen drinking behavior and personal drinking behavior relative to those who did not receive PNF. Results indicated that both gender-neutral and same-sex gender-specific PNF were efficacious in reducing drinking behavior in comparison to the control group. Although there were no significant differences between feedback conditions as expected, the same-sex gender-specific PNF effects were noted on both outcome variables (drinking quantity and frequency) whereas gender-neutral feedback significantly impacted frequency but not quantity. For reducing drinking behavior, these findings suggest gender-specific feedback may be preferable to gender-neutral feedback, at least for freshmen students. This may be due to the increased believability or relevance of the normative information provided.
Conclusions:
This is the first study to demonstrate gender-specific normative misperceptions for freshmen-specific referents. These findings suggest that normative perceptions for more specific referents (i.e., typical same-sex freshmen) are more strongly associated with drinking behavior compared to less specific referents (i.e., typical freshmen). This research also replicates previous research documenting the efficacy of PNF as a single component intervention to reduce college student drinking; however, this is the first study to do so among heavy-drinking freshmen, using freshmen-specific norms. Results support the continuation of research aimed at enhancing effects of PNF through identifying optimal referent groups and assessing mediators of intervention efficacy.
Implications for the field:
The findings extend previous evaluations of computer-based PNF and suggest that computer-based PNF for incoming freshmen utilizing freshmen-specific norms that are gender-specific may constitute a promising prevention strategy.

Lewis, M. L., Lee, C. M., Patrick, M. E., & Fossos, N. (2007). Gender-specific normative misperceptions of risky sexual behavior and alcohol-related risky sexual behavior. Sex Roles, 57, 81-90. return to list

Objective:
This study examined gender-specific normative perceptions of risky sexual behavior and alcohol-related risky sexual behavior among college students and their relationship with one’s own sexual behavior. As found with drinking behavior, normative perceptions for same-sex peers may be especially important when evaluating risky sexual behavior and alcohol-related risky sexual behavior, as it represents a more proximal referent.
Method:
Undergraduate students from the United States (N = 687; 57.6% female) completed baseline measures and follow-up surveys at 3-, 6-, and 9-months assessing perceived sexual behavior and their personal engagement in risky sexual behavior and alcohol-related risky sexual behaviors. Students were randomized to either an intervention or assessment-only control condition and were surveyed on their normative perceptions of other’s engagement in risky behaviors, including sex, illicit drug use, and alcohol consumption. .
Results:
The findings of this study demonstrated that both male and female students perceived others as engaging in more risky sexual behavior than they do and that perceived norms were positively associated with one’s own behavior. Women displayed a greater normative misperception for number of sexual partners and frequency of casual sexual intercourse for their male peers. Same-sex perceptions were associated with greater frequency of casual sexual intercourse and alcohol-related risky sexual behavior; whereas, opposite-sex norms were not associated with risky sexual behavior or alcohol-related risky sexual behavior. These findings are consistent with Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954) and Social Impact Theory (Latane, 1981), which suggest that more socially proximal normative referents (i.e., same-sex) should have greater influence on one’s behavior compared to more socially distal normative referents (i.e., opposite-sex).
Conclusions:
Little research has examined the association between perceived risky sexual behavior and actual sexual behavior. The present study extends previous research showing that college students perceived that same-sex and opposite-sex peers engaged in more risky sexual behavior and alcohol-related risky sexual behavior than they do. Moreover, these results show that same-sex perceptions of risky sexual behavior and alcohol-related risky sexual behavior are related to one’s own sexual behavior and alcohol consumption..
Implications for the Field:
The present results are consistent with research examining perceived drinking norms, suggesting that perceived risky sexual behavior norms may influence risky sexual behavior in the same manner that perceived drinking norms influence drinking behavior (Neighbors et al., 2006a). As found with drinking, perceived behavior may precede and therefore influence one’s actual behavior. The research also demonstrates normative misperceptions for risky sexual behavior, thus providing initial support for incorporating personalized normative feedback (PNF) behavior into brief interventions that aim to reduce risky sexual behavior among college students. Providing PNF to students demonstrating that sexual behavior is not as prevalent or as widespread as they thought may cause students to reevaluate their own behavior. These findings suggest that correcting misperceptions is more likely to reduce risk behavior than to foster complacency or resistance among individuals who engage in these high-risk behaviors.

Lewis, T. F. (2007). Perceptions of risk and sex-specific social norms in explaining alcohol consumption among college students: Implications for campus interventions. Journal of College Student Development, 48 (3), 297-310. return to list

The aim of this study was to expand the assessment of two explanatory models of drinking behavior-perceptions of risk and social norms-and determine their relationship to dimensions of alcohol involvement in a multivariate evaluation. The Alcohol and Drug Survey was administered to a sample (N = 235) of college students from a university in the Southeast. Results from the canonical correlation analysis revealed that perceived normative beliefs of closest friends of the same sex best explained dimensions of alcohol involvement. Perceptions of risk were associated with drinking involvement, although the direction of relationships was unexpectedly positive. Implications for campus interventions are discussed.

McAlaney, J., & McMahon, J. (2007) Normative beliefs, misperceptions, and heavy episodic drinking in a British student sample. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68, 228-237. return to list

Objective:
Numerous studies have demonstrated the existence and effect of normative misperceptions on heavy episodic drinking behavior. However, there has been little work on these processes or application of normative-belief interventions outside the U.S. college system. The aim of the current study, therefore, was to investigate heavy episodic drinking and normative misperceptions in a U.K. university setting.
Method:
An email containing a link to a survey Web site was distributed to all current undergraduate students at the University of Paisley, Scotland. In addition to age and gender questions, the survey contained items on students' personal behavior and perception of the level of that behavior in three groups of increasing social distance: close friends, other students of the same age, and other people of the same age in U.K. society in general. Results: Completed surveys from 500 respondents were returned. In keeping with previous research, significant correlations were found between the respondents' behavior and the perception of that behavior in others, with beliefs about the most proximal individuals being the most strongly correlated. The majority of respondents were also found to overestimate alcohol consumption in other students. An age effect was noted, in which misperceptions appeared to decrease with age but did not vary between genders.
Conclusions:
The findings of the study indicate that the normative-belief alcohol consumption processes that have been found on U.S. college campuses also operate in U.K. university settings. This raises the possibility of applying social-norms interventions from the United States to the United Kingdom and potentially elsewhere in the world. Furthermore, the study noted apparent age effects in the degree of misperception, the implications of which are discussed.

Neighbors, C., Fossos, N., Woods, B.A., Fabiano, P., Sledge, M., & Frost, D. (2007). Social anxiety as a moderator of the relationship between perceived norms and drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68, 91-96. return to list

Objective:
College students overestimate the drinking of their peers, and the more they overestimate, the more they drink. The present research was designed to evaluate social anxiety as a moderator of the relationship between perceived norms and drinking among college men and women.
Method:
Participants included 1,217 first-year residence-hall students (62.8% women) who completed Web-based assessments of social anxiety, perceived norms, and self-reported drinking.
Results:
Results replicated previous research in that students overestimated the drinking of their peers (d = 0.75, p < .001). Students who had higher social anxiety drank somewhat more but did not differ from students who had lower social anxiety on perceived norms. However, the relationship between perceived norms and drinking was stronger among students who had higher social anxiety (d = 0.92, p < .001) relative to less socially anxious students (d = 0.02, p = NS). Higher levels of social anxiety were associated with a stronger relationship between perceived norms and drinking for both men (d = 0.86, p < .001) and women (d = 0.50, p < .001) but stronger for men (d = 0.26, p < .001).
Conclusions:
These results corroborate previous literature, which suggests that social factors are important determinants of drinking in this population and suggest that social anxiety is associated with susceptibility to peer influences on drinking. Additional work evaluating whether reductions in social anxiety may ameliorate the impact of perceived norms on drinking would be worthwhile.

Neighbors, C., Lee, C.M., Lewis, M., & Fossos, N. (2007). Are social norms the best predictors of outcomes among heavy-drinking college students? Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68, 556-565.

Objective:
This study was designed to evaluate the contribution of social norms, demographics, drinking motives, and alcohol expectancies in predicting alcohol consumption and related problems among heavy-drinking college students.
Method:
Participants included 818 (57% women) first-year undergraduates who reported at least one heavy-drinking episode in the previous month on a web-based screening survey. In addition to providing demographic information such as gender and fraternity or sorority membership, participants completed multiple web-based assessments of social norms (perceived descriptive norms regarding typical student drinking and injunctive norms regarding friends’ and parents’ approval), drinking motives (social, enhancement, coping, and conformity), and alcohol expectancies and subjective evaluations of positive and negative alcohol effects. These factors have all been shown to predict heavy drinking among college students and have been directly or indirectly incorporated in existing interventions. Researchers also examined alcohol consumption and problems and the extent to which the relationships between predictors and problems were mediated by consumption.
Results:
Regression results indicated that descriptive and injunctive norms of friends were among the best predictors of college student drinking. Coping motives accounted for the largest portion of unique variance and were related to alcohol-related problems but not consumption. Alcohol consumption mediated the relationships between predictors and problems for social norms, whereas coping motives, negative expectancies, and evaluation of negative effects were directly associated with alcohol problems despite having relatively weak or null unique associations with consumption.
Conclusions:
The results of the study substantiate descriptive norms as being among the best predictors of alcohol consumption in this population and suggest that drinking to cope is a better predictor of problems. The findings suggest that strategies that are effective in changing perceived norms might have a larger impact on drinking than strategies without a normative component. The results provide support for strategies that are effective in changing alcohol expectancies as a way to impact alcohol-related problems more directly as well as intervention strategies that directly address drinking motivations. Although the findings support both social norms and alcohol expectancies as possible mechanisms of change for reducing alcohol consumption and problems, social norms-based interventions can reach a larger audience with lower cost than expectancy challenge strategies such as motivational interviewing and personalized feedback.
Implications for the Field:
Identifying the relative strength of predictors of problem drinking has important practical implications for theory and intervention approaches. With respect to intervention implications, campuses have limited resources to plan programs designed to reduce harmful drinking practices. Identifying the relative priority of factors associated with drinking can inform policy makers in designing programs that directly target factors that are likely to have the greatest impact on drinking.
The present research extends previous examinations of the relationships among norms, consumption, and alcohol-related problems. The finding that consumption largely mediates the relationship between social norms and problems suggests that students who overestimate the drinking of their peers and who perceive their friends as more approving of alcohol have more problems because they drink more. This research reiterates the influence that friends and parents have on drinking. Results suggest that interventions that incorporate friends and parents in addition to descriptive norms for typical students might improve effectiveness. Additional discussions of strategies for addressing friends’ expectations regarding alcohol might be worthwhile.

Neighbors, C., Lostutter, T. W., Whiteside, U., Fossos, N., Walker, D.D., & Larimer, M. E. (2007). Injunctive norms and problem gambling among college students. Journal of Gambling Studies, 23, 253-273. return to list

Abstract:
Two studies examined the relationships among injunctive norms and college student gambling. In study 1 we evaluated the accuracy of perceptions of other students' approval of gambling and the relationship between perceived approval and gambling behavior. In study 2 we evaluated gambling behavior as a function of perceptions of approval of other students, friends, and family. In study 1, which included 2524 college students, perceptions of other students' approval of gambling were found to be overestimated and were negatively associated with gambling behavior. The results of study 2, which included 565 college students, replicated the findings of study 1 and revealed positive associations between gambling behavior and perceived approval of friends and family. Results highlight the complexity of injunctive norms and the importance of considering the reference group (e.g., peers, friends, family members) in their evaluation. Results also encourage caution in considering the incorporation of injunctive norms in prevention and intervention approaches.

Perkins, H.W. (2007). Misperceptions of peer drinking norms in Canada: Another look at the 'Reign of Error' and its consequences among college students. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 2645-2656. return to list

Objective:
The research linking misperceived norms to high risk drinking (and more accurate perceptions to more moderate drinking) has been largely confined to studies conducted within the United States. This study sought to expand the investigation of perceived drinking norms among university students by conducting research with data gathered in the Canadian context. The study examined such things as estimations of consumption, perceived norms and personal behaviors, perception of peers as a predictor of personal drinking, and withdrawal from social interaction and alienation from campus life based on the misperceptions of students’ who abstain or drink very lightly.
Method:
Data was collected in a 2003–2004 survey of students (N = 5280) attending 11 institutions across 7 provinces in Canada. The survey cannot be taken as a fully representative sample of undergraduates across Canada, however, as Quebec students were not represented in the aggregate data. Surveys were administered by The Student Life Education Company (SLEC) either to a random sample of students through the mail or to students attending a diverse selection of classes. The survey asked questions about a variety of personal attitudes and behaviors as well as about what students thought were the most typical drinking patterns of other students attending their institution. Specifically of interest concerning drinking were items about frequency of consumption of alcohol and quantities consumed. The survey also asked students how they spend their time, how much they participated in and felt a part of their academic institution, and standard demographic background questions.
Results:
The results demonstrate that regardless of the actual drinking norm on each campus, students most commonly overestimated the alcohol consumption norms (both quantity and frequency levels) in every instance. Students' perception of their campus drinking norm was the strongest predictor of the amount of alcohol personally consumed in comparison with the influence of all demographic variables. Perception of the norm was also a much stronger predictor of personal use than the actual campus norm for consumption on each campus or the actual norm for compliance with campus regulations. Among students who personally abstain or consume lightly, misperceptions of the student drinking norms contribute to alienation from campus life. Overestimates of the general student drinking norm by light and non-drinkers were also associated with a greater tendency to be unhappy at school most of the time, the belief that they did not fit in with other students on campus, and the belief that it was not important to work with other students to improve their school.
Conclusions:
The data collected from the Canadian college students demonstrate a pattern of peer drinking norm misperception consistent with that observed in nationwide studies of U.S. college and university students. Most students tend to misperceive their peer norms at each school and often overestimate both the frequency of drinking and the quantities consumed in social contexts. Misperceptions may pressure or encourage otherwise moderate drinking students to drink more heavily and may also allow students predisposed to high risk drinking to do so freely with the belief that they do not have a problem because they are just like everyone else. In addition, the exaggerated misperceptions of drinking norms that exist even among light drinkers and abstainers can have negative consequences as well. Those students preferring not to drink or to drink in small quantities may feel they are less like most other students than is really the case. These misperceptions may push them to feel that they have little in common with most peers if they think others are drinking frequently and regularly consuming large quantities in social occasions. Thus, the misperceptions may lead light drinkers and abstainers to feel more alienated from other students and their school in general than would otherwise be the case. The data suggest that a broad range of students—abstainers and light drinkers as well as moderate and heavy drinkers—may benefit from implementing intervention strategies that can correct or reduce these misperceptions.
Implications for the Field:
The data reported here provide further evidence supporting the implementation of intervention strategies that correct or reduce misperceptions of college drinking norms among students. Academic administrators and other college student personnel concerned with promoting student health and well-being among Canadian students may wish to consider initiatives that can reduce heavy drinking and misperceptions and give students a more realistic (more moderate) view of peer drinking. Such an initiative may help the already light drinkers and abstainers to feel more at home and participate more actively in campus life. Increasing participation in campus life for these students may also increase student retention.

2006

Boyle, J.R., & Boekeloo, B.O. (2006). Perceived parental approval of drinking and its impact on problem drinking behaviors among first-year college students. Journal of American College Health, 54 (4), 238-244. return to list

Abstract:
There is a paucity of research investigating the impact that parents may have on college drinking. In this study, the authors investigated the relationship between students' perceptions of parent approval of drinking and problem drinking occurrence. They conducted a Web-based survey of 265 first-year students living on campus during their second semester. The authors used logistic regression to examine the relationship between students' perceptions of their mothers' and fathers' attitudes toward their drinking, their mothers' and fathers' drinking habits, and problem drinking since they had begun college. Sixty-nine percent of respondents reported experiencing at least one drinking problem. Over one-third of students perceived that their parents would approve of them drinking occasionally. Students perceiving more parental approval for their drinking were more likely to report at least one drinking problem. Student perceptions of parental approval of drinking warrant further investigation as a potentially mutable correlate of problem drinking.

Objective:
This study was conducted to assess the relationships among sociodemographics, normative perceptions, and individual attitudes on alcohol consumption, smoking, and exercise behavior. The study also examined the influence of normative judgments as compared to other influences on college students’ health behaviors.
Method:
Students at two universities (N=393) completed timed questionnaires in groups for extra credit or course credit. Six different versions of the questionnaire were distributed and students responded to 2 of 3 health topics. The questionnaire consisted of measures of the participants’ own behaviors related to alcohol use, smoking, and/or exercise; normative judgments of other undergraduates’ attitudes and behaviors; and scales assessing their attitudes towards their own health behaviors as well as their attitudes toward other undergraduates’ behaviors. The survey also collected the respondents’ sociodemographic information to judge how these variables related to their consumption of alcohol, tobacco use, and exercise behaviors.
Results:
Regressions indicated that sociodemographics, normative perceptions, and individual attitudinal influences were associated with behavior, but varied independent variables emerged as the salient predictors among behaviors. Liking to engage in a particular behavior and participant sex were the only predictors that remained consistent across positive and negative health behaviors. In several conditions, the effect of normative perceptions on behaviors was not significant, a finding in direct opposition to social norms marketing. A variance in the influence of different normative judgments may account for some of the mixed outcomes in social norms studies, as they typically target only one normative judgment.
Conclusions:
The study questioned the effects of social norms campaigns and stated that although some social norms marketing may be meeting with success, it may be the case that predicted attitudinal and behavioral changes will not be found when applied across diverse health topics. The authors claim that a social norms approach assumes attitude and behavior change are influenced by one’s perception of others’ attitudes and behavior. They point to several persuasion theories which suggest that one’s own attitudes influence behaviors (Ajzen, 1985, Kim and Hunter, 1993) and note that we are not always motivated to comply with what others think we should do. The authors advocate measuring multiple specific normative judgments and attitudes.
Implications for the Field:
The authors believe that social norms campaigns should include attitude measurements towards others’ attitude or behavior, one’s attitudes toward the behavior itself, attitudes related to one’s liking of participating in the specific behavior, and attitudes related to the healthiness of the behavior to increase the context specificity of the attitudinal measurement. The study alludes that for behavioral intervention campaigns to meet with success, we must learn how best to influence individuals’ predilection for behaviors, both healthy behaviors we wish to encourage and unhealthy behaviors we wish to diminish. Although normative judgments may have some effect on college students’ health behaviors, the authors believe that they are neither consistent nor the optimal predictors of such behaviors.

Kilmer, J.R., Walker, D.D., Lee, C.M., Palmer, R.S., Mallett, K.A., Fabiano, P., et al. (2006). Misperceptions of college student marijuana use: implications for prevention. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67 (2), 277-281. return to list

Objective:
This study investigates the relationship between marijuana use, perceived norms of use by friends and students in general, and negative experiences or problems from alcohol and drug use. It was hypothesized that students would overestimate the marijuana use of students in general and that perceptions about the prevalence of marijuana use would be related to drug-related consequences.
Method:
In this study, 5,990 participants provided information on the perceptions and consequences of drug use via an online survey or via a paper-based survey.
Results:
Although two-thirds of participants reported no marijuana use, 98% of respondents incorrectly predicted that students in general use marijuana at least once per year. Perceptions of use by friends and students in general accounted for variance in drug use and related problems or experiences.
Conclusions:
Given the relationship between norm misperception and behavior with marijuana use, future research could explore the impact of targeting misperceived norms through prevention and intervention efforts.

Linkenbach, J., Perkins, H.W. (2006). "Montana's MOST of Us Don't Drink and Drive Campaign: A Social Norms Strategy to Reduce Impaired Driving Among 21-34-Year-Olds." National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Publication: DOT HS 809 869.
An online version in HTML format is available at:
http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/SocialNorms_Strategy/pages/TOC.htm
An online version in PDF format is available at:
http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/SocialNorms_Strategy/ return to list

Abstract:
This report presents the results of a demonstration project to test the efficacy of a high-intensity social norms media intervention to reduce the prevalence of driving after drinking among 21 to 34-year-olds living in western Montana. A baseline survey was conducted to collect self-reported data on the target population's behavior with respect to impaired driving, as well as on their perceptions of the behavior of their peers. Normative messages and media were developed from these data. Each survey gathered information on respondents' exposure to the campaign message, and on their perceptions and reported behaviors regarding driving after drinking. The campaign successfully reduced the target population's misperceptions of the frequency of impaired driving among their peers. The change in perceptions was associated with a change in reported behavior. In the target area there was a 13.7-percent relative decrease in the percentage that reported driving after drinking and a 15-percent relative increase in the percentage that reported always using non-drinking designated drivers. A high-intensity paid media social norms intervention can be successful on a statewide scale, across a wide variety of measures including perceptions, reported behaviors, attitudes, and support for policy. However, additional research is warranted to corroborate the self-reported behaviors with changes in the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of arrested drivers or numbers of alcohol-related fatalities.

Mallett, K., Lee, C.M., Neighbors, C., Larimer, M.E., & Turrisi, R. (2006). Do we learn from our mistakes? An examination of the impact of negative alcohol-related consequences on college students' drinking patterns and perceptions. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67 (2), 269-276. return to list

Objective:
Little research has examined antecedents of specific drinking consequences (vomiting, regretted sex, hangover, blackouts) among college students. This research examined how students' experiences of past consequences relate to their beliefs of experiencing similar consequences in the future and how these beliefs relate to current drinking patterns.
Method:
Self-reported past drinking behavior and resulting consequences associated with specific occasions were assessed among 303 (66% women) college students. Students also estimated number of drinks associated with risk of experiencing future similar consequences.
Results:
Paired-samples t tests indicated that students significantly overestimated the number of drinks it would take to vomit, have unwanted sexual experiences, experience hangovers, and black out in comparison with the actual self-reported number of drinks consumed the last time identical consequences were experienced. In addition, a series of multiple-regression analyses revealed that greater misperceptions between the perceived and actual number of drinks associated with each type of consequence were consistently associated with heavier drinking.
Conclusions:
Results suggest that heavier-drinking students do not learn from their mistakes but instead overestimate the amount of alcohol they can consume without experiencing negative consequences. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed in terms of augmenting brief interventions aimed at heavy-drinking college students. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved) (from the journal abstract).

Neighbors, C., Dillard, A.J., Lewis, M.A., Bergstrom, R.L., & Neil, T.A. (2006). Normative misperceptions and temporal precedence of perceived norms and drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67 (2), 290-299. return to list

Objective:
Previous research has shown that students overestimate the drinking of their peers, and that perceived norms are strongly associated with drinking behavior. Explanations for these findings have been based largely on cross-sectional data, precluding the ability to evaluate the stability of normative misperceptions or to disentangle the direction of influence between perceived norms and drinking. The present research was designed to evaluate (1) the stability of normative misperceptions and (2) temporal precedence of perceived norms and drinking.
Method:
Participants were college students ( N = 164; 94 women) who completed assessments of perceived norms and reported behavior for drinking frequency and weekly quantity. Most participants (68%) completed the same measures again two months later.
Results:
Results indicated large and stable overestimations of peer drinking for frequency and weekly quantity. Results also showed that for weekly quantity,, perceived norms predicted later drinking, but drinking also predicted later perceived norms. Results for frequency revealed norms predicted later drinking, but drinking did not predict later perceived norms. Conclusions: These findings underscore the importance of longitudinal designs in evaluating normative influences on drinking. The present findings suggest that normative misperceptions are stable, at least over a relatively short time period. Findings support a mutual influence model of the relationship between perceived norms and drinking quantity but are more strongly associated with conformity explanations for the relationship between perceived norms and drinking frequency. Results are discussed in terms of implications for prevention interventions.

Neighbors, C., Lewis, M.A., Bergstrom, R.L, & Larimer, M.E. (2006). Being controlled by normative Influences: Self-determination as a moderator of a normative feedback alcohol intervention. Health Psychology, 25 (5), 571-579. return to list

Abstract:
The objectives of this research were to evaluate the efficacy of computer-delivered personalized normative feedback among heavy drinking college students and to evaluate controlled orientation as a moderator of intervention efficacy. Participants (N=217) included primarily freshman and sophomore heavy drinking students who were randomly assigned to receive or not to receive personalized normative feedback immediately following baseline assessment. Perceived norms, number of drinks per week, and alcohol-related problems were the main outcome measures. Controlled orientation was specified as a moderator. At 2-month follow-up, students who received normative feedback reported drinking fewer drinks per week than did students who did not receive feedback, and this reduction was mediated by changes in perceived norms. The intervention also reduced alcohol-related negative consequences among students who were higher in controlled orientation. These results provide further support for computer-delivered personalized normative feedback as an empirically supported brief intervention for heavy drinking college students, and they enhance the understanding of why and for whom normative feedback is effective.

Neighbors, C., Oster-Aaland, L., Bergstrom, R.L., & Lewis, M.A. (2006). Event- and context-specific normative misperceptions and high-risk drinking: Twenty-first birthday celebrations and football tailgating. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67 (2), 282-289. return to list

Objective:
Negative alcohol-related consequences often occur during specific events and in specific contexts (e.g., 21st birthday celebrations and tailgating parties). A lack of available event- and context-specific interventions suggests the need to better understand factors associated with heavy drinking in these contexts, with an eye toward developing specific interventions. The purpose of this research was to lay the foundation for developing personalized normative feedback interventions for 21st birthday celebratory drinking and tailgating drinking by evaluating whether students overestimate norms in these specific contexts, as they do more generally.
Method:
Perceived descriptive norms and alcohol consumption were assessed at event- and context-specific levels in two studies. Study 1 included 119 students turning 21 years old who reported their 21st birthday drinking behavior and estimated the typical number of drinking consumed by students celebrating their 21st birthday. Study 2 included 140 undergraduates drawn from a stratified sample who reported their behavior regarding drinking and tailgaiting and their perceived norms for typical drinking and tailgaiting behavior.
Results:
Results from Study 1 revealed that students overestimated peer drinking during 21st birthday celebrations, and this overestimation was associated with heavier drinking on one's own 21st birthday. In Study 2, students underestimated the percentage of tailgaiters who drank but overestimated typical consumption. Overestimation was consistently associated with heavier drinking during tailgaiting.
Conclusions:
Successful correction of general normative misperceptions for specific events and contexts provided by these results represents an important step in developing event- and context-specific interventions utilizing specific normative feedback.

Perkins, H.W. & Craig, D.W. (2006). A successful social norms campaign to reduce alcohol misuse among college student-athletes. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67 (6), 868-879. return to list

Objective:
This study examined the impact of a social norms intervention to reduce alcohol misuse and misperceptions regarding student-athlete alcohol norms among student-athletes. The goal of the study was to provide a more realistic awareness of moderate peer norms regarding drinking and disapproval of alcohol misuse.
Method:
Student-athletes at an undergraduate liberal arts institution completed a voluntary anonymous survey each year for three years between Fall 2001 and Fall 2003. A total of 414 athletes completed the pre-test survey in November 2001. Student-athletes were asked questions regarding demographic information, academics, social and leisure activities, friendship patterns, career interests, and health and well-being, including alcohol use. In addition, student-athletes were asked questions regarding typical personal consumption of alcohol, negative consequences, and perceived norms regarding how often they thought their friends, other students on their team, male and female athletes at their school, and non-athletes at their school consumed alcohol. Measures were repeated in each year of the survey.
            In November 2002, a second round of the student-athlete survey (first post-test) was administered to 373 student-athletes. The final round (second post-test) was conducted in November 2003 with 353 respondents. All 20 intercollegiate sport teams representing this institution participated in the survey each year. In post-intervention years, respondents were surveyed on exposure to a variety of intervention techniques communicating student-athlete facts. Interventions used actual student-athlete norms and included social norms messages delivered in campus newspaper advertisements and posters displayed throughout campus, email messages delivered weekly to all student athletes, computer screensavers on computers set up in kiosks in the athletic facilities, an interactive multimedia program with facts, video commentary, and quiz contests, an interactive cd with sports information, a poster show of all social norms campaign posters, and graphic norms messages, and programs presented by student-athlete peer educators that provided accurate social norm messages about student-athlete alcohol use.
            The post-test surveyed the student-athletes regarding the intervention’s impact on alcohol misuse. Respondents were asked how often they had read, seen, used, or participated in each of the seven types of communication used to promote student-athlete facts. The authors used logistic regression procedures and odds ratios to compare the pre-intervention responses of student-athletes with the post-intervention responses.
Results:
Pervasive misperceptions of the peer norm among student-athletes were found in the 2001 baseline or pre-intervention survey. Student-athletes stated that they consumed alcohol once a week and yet 71% of respondents misperceived the male norm to be more than once a week while 51% of respondents misperceived the female norm by overestimating the typical frequency. Furthermore, two thirds of respondents thought the norm among their friends was to drink more than once a week.
            The intervention substantially reduced misperceptions of frequent alcohol consumption and high quantity social drinking as the norm among student-athlete peers. Frequent personal consumption, high-quality consumption, high estimated peak blood alcohol concentrations during social drinking, and negative consequences all declined by 30% or more among ongoing student-athletes after program exposure. Perceptions that the norm for team members was to drink more than once a week were cut almost in half.
            As the level of exposure increased, misperceptions decreased regarding teammates and other athletes. Having at least moderate exposure decreased predicted chances of consuming alcohol more than once per week, consuming 10 or more drinks at parties and bars, and exhibiting extreme problem drinking. Ongoing student athletes (students participating in intercollegiate athletics during the previous year) were twice as likely as new student-athletes to indicate a high level of exposure to program interventions. In contrast, no significant differences across time were seen for new student-athletes each year with low program exposure. Perceptions about the norms regarding frequency and quantity among non-athlete peers did not decline at all.
Conclusion:
This social norms intervention was effective in reducing alcohol misuse in this high-risk collegiate subpopulation by intensively delivering data-based messages about actual peer norms through multiple communication venues. The student-athletes in this study frequently misperceived the norms among student-athlete peers. When exposed to social norms messages, the student-athletes exhibited less risk of misperceiving the norms and less risk of alcohol misuse.
Implications for the field:
The higher-risk status of student-athletes for alcohol misuse suggests that greater attention must be given to this subpopulation of college students. Student-athletes’ high-profile status as role models are an additional reason for concern about the need to address drinking problems in this group. More research is needed to assess the effectiveness of this strategy at larger Division I institutions where the student-athlete population is proportionately much smaller relative to the total student population.

Objective:
This study examined the correlates of accuracy and bias related to respondents’ perceptions of two cognitive orientations: (a) whether or not respondents had thought about the campus binge-drinking problem and their estimates of whether or not most other students had thought about the problem; and (b) whether or not they believed the social norms campaign message that most students drink “0 to 4 drinks when they party” compared with their estimates of how believable most students found the message to be. Although this study examined the campus drinking norm as measured by students’ own reported drinking behaviors and their estimates of their friends’ and most other students’ drinking behaviors, the study extends social norms research by examining students’ social comparisons about alcohol consumption with the problem recognition and message belief cognitive orientations.
Method:
Using the social comparison theory, 277 students at a northeast U.S. college completed a survey in June 2003 to examine the respondents’ drinking behaviors and their perceptions of their friends’ (i.e., the social network norm) and “most other” students’ drinking behaviors (i.e., the campus norm). The survey also explored correlates that may contribute to accuracy and bias in respondents’ social comparisons of the binge-drinking problem and their beliefs in the campaign message that the majority of students on campus drink “0 to 4 drinks when they party.” The survey included 65 questions developed from a number of instruments used in previous studies, including the Core Alcohol and Drug Survey and the 1997 and 2001 versions of the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study. The mean age of the respondents was 21 and 54% were female; 82.7% were white.
Results:
The overwhelming majority (72.6%) of students did not believe the norms message that most students on campus drink “0 to 4” drinks when they party, and 52.7% reported drinking “5 or more” drinks in a sitting. Of the 145 binge drinkers, 44.1% were women and 81 (55.9%) were men. Sorority and fraternity members reported higher levels of binge drinkers. Of the reported binge drinkers, 95.9% said their friends drank 5 or more drinks per sitting. Binge drinkers also estimated that 87.6% of students consumed five or more alcoholic drinks at one sitting, and only 12.4% said “most other” students’ consumption fell within the “0 to 4” campaign norm. Those respondents who estimated that their friends drank five or more alcoholic drinks were 5.83 times more likely to estimate that “most other” students also drank five or more than were those who said their friends drank zero to four. Overall, there was little difference in the proportion of respondents estimating their friends (72.5%) and other students (73.6%) consumed five or more alcoholic drinks at one time. Of the students who reported drinking 0-4 drinks in a sitting, 42% indicated that “most other” students consumed the same whereas the other 58% estimated that “most others” drank five or more drinks in a sitting, which is indicative of a pervasive alcohol culture in their community.

In terms of believability of the message, only 27.4% believed that most students drank only “0 to 4” drinks when they partied. This means that based on personal experience, most college students have witnessed, experienced, or assumed that most college students binge drink, which contributed to their disbelief in the campaign message. Students who believed that most other students found the campaign message more believable than they did (i.e., the nonbelievers) drank more alcohol, experienced more hangovers, and discounted the effectiveness of communication as a means of reducing the binge-drinking problem. In contrast, the accurate believers (i.e., those who believed that they were more likely to believe the campaign message than most other students) exhibited greater concern for the risks of dangerous drinking, consumed less alcohol, and believed in the efficacy of communication campaigns. The social norms campaign was effective in motivating 61% of the respondents to think about binge drinking as a problem. For the most part, group or social network norms were more influential on students’ own drinking behavior than were their estimates of the campus drinking norm.
Conclusion:
The findings support previous studies that group or social network norms appear to be more influential on students’ own drinking behavior than are purported campus-drinking norms. The data shows a stronger relationship between students’ own drinking behavior and their friends’ drinking behavior than with the perceived drinking behavior of “most other” students on campus. These numbers seem to support the idea that group or social networks appear to be more influential on student’s own drinking behavior than are purported campus-drinking norms. These findings also clarify that accuracy in estimating the campus norm in and of itself does not necessarily lead to an increase or decrease in alcohol consumption.
Implications for the field:
The findings underscore the complexity of the social comparisons process and reinforce the need for the development of multiple approaches to alcohol education with messages that are designed to target the specific needs of students based on their orientations toward alcohol consumption. The findings also highlight the efficacy of examining multiple norms connected with drinking behavior to better ascertain effective strategies for communicating health messages to college students. In this study, social norms messages proved to be ineffective in targeting hard-core drinkers in view of the fact that they have little concern for what others think and do. Reducing the levels of dangerous drinking on campus among hard-core drinkers remains a key challenge for health educators.

Smith, S., Atkin, C., Martell, D., Allen, R., & Hembroff, L. (2006). A social judgment theory approach to conducting formative research in a social norms campaign. Communication Theory, 16, 141-152. return to list

Abstract:
The social norms approach predicts that campaign messages providing true normative information about widely misperceived health behaviors will reduce the gap between distorted perceptions versus actual practices and consequently reduce behaviors based on exaggerated norms. Formative evaluation of messages designed to effectively convey true norms informed by social judgment theory (SJT) should measure the boundaries of the latitudes of acceptance, noncommitment, and rejection for normative information. This study found that these latitudes were significantly different from one another in believability. SJT predicts that a campaign based on a norm falling in the latitude of noncommitment will be likely to be effective. A series of messages using the true norm, which fell within the latitude of noncommitment, were part of a campaign. The gap in perceived versus actual drinking and the difference in perceived number of drinks was reduced, while self-reports of consumption of five or fewer drinks increased significantly.

2005

Ott, C. H., & Doyle, L. H. (2005). An evaluation of the small group norms challenging model: changing substance use misperceptions in five urban high schools. The High School Journal, 88, 45-55. return to list

Abstract:
According to social norms theory, when high school students overestimate the use of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs (ATOD) by their peers, they tend to use more themselves. The purpose of this study was to determine whether these overestimations (misperceptions) could be corrected through a similar age peer-to-peer interactive social norms approach based on the Small Group Norms-Challenging Model. The sample included 414 adolescents in health classes in five urban high schools. Baseline data were retrieved from the school district's Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS). Perception change was measured with items adapted from the YRBS. Results indicate a significant decrease in misperceptions from pretest to posttest. Student responses to open-ended questions indicate increased awareness of ATOD issues, positive plans for behavioral change, and positive program evaluation. Implications for the use of the social norms approach is presented for high school teachers and administrators.

Perkins, H. W., Haines, M. P., & Rice, R. (2005). Misperceiving the college drinking norm and related problems: A nationwide study of exposure to prevention information, perceived norms and student alcohol misuse. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 66, 470-478. return to list

Objective:
This study examined (1) the prevalence of misperceptions of college student drinking norms across campuses nationwide, (2) the importance of perceived norms in predicting high-risk drinking, (3) the association of exposure to alcohol education information with students' perceptions of campus drinking norms and (4) the differences in high-risk drinking rates between schools where exposure to alcohol information is associated with more accurately perceived norms and schools where exposure to information is unrelated to perceptions or is associated with greater misperceptions.
Method:
Multivariate analyses were used to analyze an aggregate database of the National College Health Assessment survey administered to 76,145 students from 130 colleges and universities nationwide from spring 2000 through spring 2003.
Results:
Regardless of the actual campus drinking norm, a consistently large percentage of students nationwide overestimated the quantity of alcohol consumed by their peers. Students' perception of their campus drinking norm was the strongest predictor of the amount of alcohol personally consumed in comparison with the influence of all demographic variables. Perception of the norm was also a much stronger predictor when compared with the actual campus norm. Reduced levels of high-risk drinking and negative consequences were found among students attending the relatively few schools where exposure to prevention information was associated with less exaggerated perceptions of the drinking norm compared with students attending other schools.
Conclusions:
Misperceived drinking norms are a pervasive problem. Schools that do not seek to reduce these misperceptions with their prevention information are neglecting a potentially powerful component of prevention.

2004

Berkowitz, A. D. (2004). The Social Norms Approach: Theory, Research, and Annotated Bibliography. return to list

Provides a brief overview of research in support of social norms theory, reviews successful social norms interventions at all three levels of prevention (universal, selective and indicated), summarizes different applications of the approach, and makes recommendations for future development of the field. Included is an annotated bibliography of important publications and articles on the social norms approach.
Available online at: http://www.alanberkowitz.com/articles/social_norms.pdf

Larimer, M., Turner, A., Mallett, K., & Geisner, I. (2004). Predicting drinking behavior and alcohol-related problems among fraternity and sorority members: Examining the role of descriptive and injunctive norms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18 (3), 203-212. return to list

Abstract:
The authors examined the relation between Greek students' perceptions of alcohol consumption in their pledge classes (descriptive norms) and acceptability of drinking (injunctive norms) and the ability of these normative influences to predict drinking behavior, alcohol-related negative consequences; and symptoms of alcohol dependence concurrently and prospectively over I year. Participants were 279 men and 303 women recruited from incoming pledge classes of 12 fraternities and 6 sororities, who completed measures of descriptive and injunctive norms, alcohol use, and consequences. Results revealed that descriptive norms significantly predicted concurrent drinking. After controlling for baseline drinking, injunctive norms significantly predicted drinking 1 year later and predicted alcohol-related consequences and dependency symptoms at baseline and follow-up. The potential to incorporate injunctive norms into preventive interventions is discussed.

Lewis, M.A., & Neighbors, C. (2004). Gender-specific misperceptions of college student drinking norms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18 (4), 334-339. return to list

Abstract:
This study evaluated perceptions of same-sex and opposite-sex gender-specific versus gender-nonspecific drinking norms among college students (115 men, 111 women). This research is consistent with previous findings that college students overestimate the quantity and frequency of drinking among their gender-nonspecific peers and demonstrates that both men and women overestimate the quantity and frequency of the drinking of their same-sex peers. The findings suggest that perceived same-sex norms are more strongly associated with problematic drinking than are gender-nonspecific norms and that perceived same-sex drinking norms are stronger predictors of alcohol consumption for women than for men. Results suggest that interventions incorporating normative feedback should be framed differently for women than for men.

Lynch, J.F., Mowrey, R.J., Nesbitt, G.M., & O'Neill, D.F. (2004). Risky business: Misperceived norms of sexual behavior among college students. NASPA Journal, 42 (1), 21-35. return to list

Abstract:
Do students accurately perceive the sexual behavior of their peers? The results of this study indicate a dramatic difference between students' self-reported sexual behavior and their perceptions of peer sexual behavior. Specifically, students tend to overestimate the potentially risky sexual activity of their peers. The data also challenge popular myths regarding the sexual behavior of Greek and athlete populations. As with alcohol prevention efforts, the disparity between behavior and perception raises the question of whether social marketing strategies may be effective in lowering the incidence of unsafe sexual behaviors among college students.

Mattern, J. & Neighbors, C. (2004). Social norms campaigns: Examining the relationship between changes in perceived norms and changes in drink levels. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 65, 489-493. return to list

This study examines changes in drinking as a function of changes in perceived drinking norms following a social norms marketing campaign to correct normative misperceptions of college student drinking among residence hall students. Results revealed reduced perceptions of typical student drinking frequency and quantity. Among non-abstainers, drinking quantity went down from pre to post intervention. Further examination revealed that reductions in drinking were only evident among students whose perceived norms were reduced.

Neighbors, C., Larimer, M.E., & Lewis, M.A. (2004). Targeting misperceptions of descriptive drinking norms: Efficacy of a computer-delivered personalized normative feedback intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72 (3), 434-447. return to list

Abstract:
The authors evaluated the efficacy of a computer-delivered personalized normative feedback intervention in reducing alcohol consumption among heavy-drinking college students. Participants included 252 students who were randomly assigned to an intervention or control group following a baseline assessment.
Immediately after completing measures of reasons for drinking, perceived norms, and drinking behavior, participants in the intervention condition were provided with computerized information detailing their own drinking behavior, their perceptions of typical student drinking, and actual typical student drinking. Results indicated that normative feedback was effective in changing perceived norms and alcohol consumption at 3- and 6-month follow-up assessments. In addition, the intervention was somewhat more effective at 3-month follow-up among participants who drank more for social reasons.

Scholly, K., Katz, A.R., Gascoigne, J., & Holck, P.S. (2004). Using social norms theory to explain perceptions and sexual health behaviors of undergraduate college students: An exploratory study. Journal of American College Health, 53 (4), 159-166. return to list

Abstract:
The authors and associates conducted a social norms-based intervention targeting high-risk sexual behaviors among undergraduate students at 4 college campuses. Social norms theory predicts that widely held misperceptions may encourage risky behavior in a misguided attempt to conform to perceived norms and that information correcting these misperceptions will lead to a decrease in such behaviors. Students overestimated their peers' levels of sexual activity, number of partners, incidence of sexually transmitted infections, and rates of unintended pregnancies, but underestimated rates of condom use. Rates of HIV test taking, however, were accurately estimated. Although some components of sexual risk behaviors lend themselves well to social norms-based interventions, others, specifically inconsistent condom use and avoiding HIV tests, do not. Although no changes in reported beliefs or practices were apparent at the end of the 9-month intervention period, longer and modified interventions may be needed to make a fair assessment of the efficacy of this approach.

2003

Kypros K. & Langely, J.D. (2003). Perceived social norms and their relation to university student drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 64, 829-834. return to list

A 2002 study of a randomly selected representative sample of 1,564 New Zealand university students found strong evidence of norm misperceptions, and that perceived norms were strongly related to individual drinking levels.

Perkins, H. Wesley, Editor (2003) The Social Norms Approach to Preventing School and College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook for Educators, Counselors, and Clinicians. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. return to list

An essential resource book of evidence supporting the social norms strategy and a user-friendly exposition of how model interventions have been conducted. Contents include numerous case studies of campus experiments to reduce alcohol abuse, expanding social norms to other campus applications (such as tobacco use), and using the social norms approach with adolescents and young adults in community settings. Information about this volume is available on the Jossey-Bass web site: http://www.josseybass.com/cda/product/0,,078796459X|desc|2548,00.html
The contents of this page include a description of this 336-page volume, the table of contents, an extended excerpt from the book available in PDF format, and ordering information.

2001

Objective:
This study was conducted to evaluate the impact of a self-test pamphlet that provided readers with normative feedback about their drinking. The study also evaluated a methodology in which random assignment to a brief mail intervention or control group was embedded in a general population survey.
Method:
An intervention pamphlet was mailed to over 6000 households in Toronto, Canada, randomized by block. The Evaluate Your Drinking self-test pamphlet encouraged the reader to evaluate his or her own drinking, record their drinking for a typical week, and then use this information to calculate the number of drinks usually consumed per week. The reader was provided with normative information and was encouraged to compare his or her personal drinking to that of other Canadians. A graph was also presented in the pamphlet on the likelihood of adverse effects associated with different levels of consumption. The researchers assumed that heavy drinkers who read the pamphlet would be motivated to reduce their drinking by comparing their drinking amounts to the normative data. The pamphlet concluded with a menu of options for readers who were concerned about their drinking and wanted to take the next step toward changing their drinking behavior. In the month after the mailing, a general population post mailing survey was conducted in the region to obtain information about the drinking behavior of household members in the local areas and assess alcohol use. The researchers performed a random digit dialing telephone survey of adults for the entire region using a two-stage random sampling procedure. The telephone survey, which had a 50% effective response rate, contained the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), which assessed alcohol dependence, the quantity and frequency of alcohol consumption in the last year, and consequences associated with consumption. The scale was chosen to help distinguish between social and heavy drinkers.
Results:
Study variables were assessed using a hierarchical regression analysis. Main-effect analyses show that there was no overall effect of intervention condition on weekly drinking. Respondents from households receiving normative feedback (n=472) reported significantly lower alcohol use than controls (n=225), but this effect occurred only among respondents who met an objective criterion for problem drinking and who perceived some risk associated with their drinking. Among respondents who did not perceive themselves to be at risk for alcohol-related harm, post hoc pairwise t tests revealed that those who received the intervention drank significantly more than those who did not receive the intervention. Among respondents who did perceive themselves to be at risk for alcohol-related harm, those who received the intervention reported significantly less alcohol consumption than those who did not receive the intervention. In addition, there was a significant interaction between perceived risk and problem-drinking status. For non-problem drinkers, those who perceived some risk associated with their drinking reported significantly more alcohol consumption compared with those who perceived no risk.
Conclusions:
The authors believe that normative feedback interventions can be successful because they can be provided at low cost and to problem drinkers who might ordinarily never access any treatment services. In this study, the pamphlet intervention resulted in a significant reduction in alcohol use among problem drinkers who perceived themselves at risk for their alcohol consumption. One unexpected result, however, was that among drinkers who perceived no risk associated with their drinking, those who received the intervention actually drank more than those who did not. The authors state that normative feedback interventions may act to polarize problem drinkers such that individuals who perceive some risk reduce their drinking in response to normative feedback and those who perceive no risk might react to the pamphlet by drinking more. The authors hypothesize that this finding may be a result of the “boomerang” effect observed by Nye et al (1999) in which those who perceive themselves at no risk engage in defensive processing of normative information. This self-denial may result in a tendency to drink more, at least in the short term.
Implications for the Field:
The authors believe that brief interventions that employ a normative feedback approach to reducing risky alcohol use may prove useful within a general population context. The material can be constructed so that it is relevant to all drinkers, irrespective of their level of consumption, and can indicate that a person’s drinking is normative without making any statements that such drinking should be modified. For heavy drinkers, the normative feedback can alert readers in a nonjudgmental fashion that they are drinking more than the norm. This could be important information because many heavy drinkers “normalize’ their behavior by overestimating the prevalence of heavy alcohol use (Agostinelli et al., 1995). A list of options can then be presented that would allow heavy drinkers to choose to take action that could bring their alcohol consumption in line with social norms.



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